1286 Unique Plants (Merged from 1722 fragments)
abelmoschus esculentus
abelmoschus moschatus
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). None reported in PHR. DEP reports that doses exceeding 3 drachms may cause giddiness and/or headache (DEP). GRAS (CRC).
Tincture 2.5 oz powdered seed/pint ethanol; dose 1–2 drachms (DEP); PH2 gives only homeopathic doses.
abies balsamea
abies fraseri
abies spectabilis (d. don) spach
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Resin said to intoxicate when taken internally (WO2). Believing that the resins and the turpentines are similar chemically, I should estimate this to be as good as the American and European Abies.
5–10 drops fresh leaf juice in water or mother’s milk, for malaria in infants (DEP); 0.5–1 drachm dry leaf for gas (DEP); 16–48 ml leaf tea for pulmonosis (KAP); 0.5 to 1 g powdered leaf (KAP); 2–4 ml leaf tincture (f; KAP).
abrus precatorius
glycyrrhizin, abrin, abrusosides, sweet glycosides
Even though the plant contains the very useful glycyrrhizin, I consider it too poisonous for folk medicine. Two seeds have been enough to kill children (PH2), three to kill a horse (UPW). Abrin, the lectin, can cause coma, confusion, convulsions, dehydration, gastroenterosis, and hypotension (BRU). Aqueous seed extract is abortifacient; LD100 2 mg/kg ipr mouse (MPI), LD40 = 25 mg/kg orl mouse (MPI). If the leaves really contain a reported 10% glycyrrhizin, and a bigger if, no toxins, they might share many of the biological activities of licorice. One study (Choi et al., 1989) found no glycyrrhizin, rather four abrusosides and three other sweet glycosides based on the novel cycloartane-type aglycon. Purified abrusosides may prove useful as commercial sweeteners and lack the toxicity known in glycyrrhizin. More extensive toxicity tests need to be conducted (ZUL). Enzymes in abrin inhibit protein synthesis, causing cell death, more so in tumor than in healthy cells (ZUL).
5–7 grains for pertussis (DEP); some Africans take a dangerous 200-g powdered seed as a powdered contraceptive, the effect lasting 13 menstrual cycles (UPW).
acacia catechu
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). But 100 years ago, “Believed to be anaphrodisiac and to cause impotence when used in excess” (DEP).
5–20 grains to 1 drachm gum, only 1–4 grains as expectorant (DEP). 0.3–2 g gum to 3 ×/day (PH2).
acacia farnesiana (l.) willd.
acacia nilotica
None covered (AHP; KOM). Large internal doses may lead to constipation and dyspepsia (PH2).
acacia senegal
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
1–4 drachm gum (GMH).
acalypha arvensis
Boil one whole plant in 3 cups water 5 minutes and take 1 cup before each meal (AAB).
acalypha indica
acer rubrum
Saponins apparently, are not healthy. “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Horse and zebras grazing the leaves may develop hemolytic anemia. Product should not be used otherwise, except for eye conditions (PH2).
Sweet sap okay as food farmacy!
achillea millefolium
Class 2b. Emmenagogue and uterotonic (AHP), hence contraindicated in pregnancy (PH2; WAM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports hypersensitivity to milfoil and other Asteraceae (KOM). Other sources report hypersensitivity to sesquiterpene lactones. Rare contact allergy (AEH). CAN reports that the sesquiterpene lactones are allergenic and can cause dermatosis. Because the thujone in the oil is reputed to be abortifacient and to affect the menstrual cycle, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). Contraindicated in allergies dermatosis, and epilepsy. Excessive doses may interfere with or augment anticoagulant, blood pressure, diuretic, and sedative medications (CAN).
1–2 tsp herb/cup water 3–4 ×/day (APA); 4.5 g herb (KOM); 2–4 tbsp fresh herb (PED); 3–6 g dry herb (PED); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml herb tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5–1 tsp herb tincture (APA); 3 tsp herb juice (APA, KOM); 2–4 g flower head, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1 g flower (KOM); 4.5 g dry flower:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED).
achillea ptarmica
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PHR; PH2).
achyranthes aspera
aconitum napellus
aconitine
There are 300 species in the poisonous monkshood genus, many containing the alkaloid aconitine, which imparts its activities to the herb. Aconite was long used in TAM, e.g., A. ferox; and TCM, e.g., A. carmichaelii, appearing later as a medicine in the Western world. Moerman mentions six species in North America, all used as poisons. Only Chinese A. carmichaelii was covered by AHP (1997).
0.1 g = average daily dose; 0.6 g = maximum daily dose (PH2).
acorus calamus
Class 1, only for the asarone-free diploid rhizome. Class 2b for the triploid and tetraploid (AHP). CAN reports that the beta-asarone in the oil is carcinogenic and nephrotoxic, and may cause convulsions. AHP hints that the risks, like those of safrole, may not be as serious as the press would have us believe. Oil carcinogenic, convulsant; kidney damage and tremors. May potentiate MAOI therapy (CAN). And a real bombshell for uncut aromatherapists, “In general, the topical application of any undiluted EO is not recommend” (CAN). EO LD50 = 777 orl rat; LD50 = 221 ipr rat (CAN); LD50 = >5000 der guinea pig (CAN).
2–7 g powdered root (10–15 as emetic) (KAP).
actaea pachypoda
Poisonous and vesicant, may cause blistering, delirium, gastroenterosis, inflammation, irregular breathing, and vomiting. European cases of fatal child poisoning have been reported from eating berries of A. spicata.
Do not use it (APA).
actaea racemosa
actaea spicata
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Poisonous, possibly fatal (WO2), internally causing colic, delirium, dizziness, dyspnea, enteritis, gastritis, nausea, and vomiting (HHB; WO2).
I discourage its use by anyone except skilled herbal practitioners.
actinidia deliciosa
Antibacterial (1; WO2), Antidote, cinnabar (f; DAD), Antimutagenic (1; X3278214), Astringent (1; DAD), Immunostimulant (1; WO3), Insecticide (f; DAD), Pectinesterase Inhibitor (1; WO3), Proteolytic (1; DAD)
actinidia polygama
adiantum capillus-veneris l.
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Not for use during pregnancy (PH2).
1 oz herb/pint boiling water, sweetened (GMH); 1.5 g herb/cup tea (HH2; PH2).
adiantum pedatum
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Not for use during pregnancy (PH2).
1.5 g herb/cup tea (PH2).
adonis vernalis
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Pheasant’s Eye) — Not covered (AHP). Contraindicated with digitalis glycosides and potassium deficiency (KOM; PH2). Heart disorders, nausea, and vomiting in overdoses (KOM; PH2). Can potentiate calcium saluretics, glucocorticoids (extended therapy), laxatives, and quinidine (KOM). “Should be used only under medical supervision” (PNC).
Dosages (Pheasant’s Eye) — Average daily dose 0.5–0.6 g standardized adonis herb; maximum single dose 1 g; maximum daily dose 3 g (KOM; PH2).
aegle marmelos
aegopodium podagraria
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Goutweed) — Not covered (AHP; PH2).
30–60 ml fresh plant juice (PH2).
aesculus hippocastanum
aescin, aesculin, triterpenoid glycosides, StX, Barringtogenol-C-21, hippocaesculin, saponins, total saponin fraction
Not covered (AHP). Seeds “poisonous” and must be specifically prepared before being used medicinally. Never consume them in any form unless a knowledgeable manufacturer has processed them properly. Children have died after ingesting untreated seed. Formerly an FDA herb of undefined safety. Strangely, APA gives the internal usage their highest rating (1) and external usage less (3) (APA). Aesculin has caused contact dermatosis. The no-toxic-effect dose is ca. 8 times the recommended therapeutic dose. The results H of animal studies are corroborated by decades of use in patients with no reports of harmful effects due to overdosing. Tests for chronic toxicity (34 weeks in rats and dogs) showed no cumulative toxic effects or any evidence of embryotoxic or teratogenic effects. Isolated cases of GI distress, itch, and nausea are reported (SHT). Commission E reports rare GI disturbances (AEH). No con- traindications or drug-drug interactions reported (PIP). Isolated cases of renal and hepatic toxicity as well as anaphylactic reactions have been reported following intravenous administration, but these appear to be exceptional (VET Herbs of Choice). Fleming (Herbal PDR, 1998) cautions that the intake of too many horse chestnut seed (in one case, a child with 5 seed) can cause diarrhea, disorders of consciousness and vision, enlargement of the pupils, flushing of the face, severe thirst, and vomiting. In case of poisoning, Fleming recommends evacuation of the stomach and intestine (gastric lavage, sodium sulphate) and administration of activated charcoal. Then symptom management (PHR). Blumenthal et al. (1998) caution that other prescribed noninvasive treatments; e.g., leg compresses, support stockings, or cold water applications, must be observed under all circumstances (KOM). CAN cautions that aescin is nephrotoxic. Side effects include GI disturbance, impaired liver function, mild nausea, shock, spasm, urticaria, and vomiting. Should be avoided by patients on blood-thinning therapy, with hepatic or renal impairment, or lactating or pregnant. Large doses of saponins can be fatally hemolytic in animals. LD50s range for aescin from 134 to 720 orally in mice, rats, and guinea pigs. On ipr administration, the total saponin fraction (LD50 = 46.5 mg/kg ipr mouse) was less toxic compared to isolated aescin (LD50 = 9.5 mg/kg ipr mouse) (CAN). LD50 of seed extract 990 mg/kg orl mouse, 2150 orl rat, 1530 orl rbt, 130 orl dog.
0.2–1.0 g fruit 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 g dry seed/day (MAB); 1/2 tsp powdered seed/16 oz water (APA); 2–6 ml fluid seed extract (1:2)/day (MAB); 5–15 ml/day seed tincture (1:5) (MAB); 2–4 ml liquid bark extract (PNC); 0.5–1.2 ml liquid fruit extract (PNC); 30–150 mg aescin/day (PHR); 90–150 mg aescin at first, then 35–70 mg (APA); 300–600 mg StX ( = 100 mg aescin) (SHT); StX tablets (200 mg concentrated 5:1 extract) to provide 40 mg escin, 2–3 ×/day (MAB); 2 (480 mg) capsules (StX with 257 certified potency extract with at least 18–22% triterpenoid glycosides (calculated as aescin) synergistically combined with butcher’s broom, gin- ger, and rutin), one with morning meal, one with evening meal (NH).
aethusa cynapium
Aethusanol-A, aethusin
Toxic; human fatalities reported (PHR). Sometimes fatally confused with parsley (CRC). Poisonous, but less so than poison hemlock (PH2). Aethusanol-A: LD50 = 100.8 mg/kg ipr mouse (HH2), aethusin: LD50 = 93.3 mg/kg ipr mouse (HH2).
aframomum melegueta
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Grains-of-Paradise) — Not covered (AHP, KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! Nor do I (JAD)). Pungent principles may irritate gastric and urinary tracts (PH2). High oxalic content of the seed may induce cardiopathy (WO2). Antimalarial tests proved negative (UPW). Abreu and Noronha (1997) remind us that the pungent (spicy) principles have antifeedant, antischistosomal, antiseptic, antitermite, and molluscicidal properties.
“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! Nor do I (JAD)).
agastache rugosa
Class 1 (AHP).
4.5–9 g herb or 1–3 g herb concentrate (AKT).
agathosma betulina
Class 2b, 2d. “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Contraindicated in nephrosis (AHP). Commission E reports it contains irritating EO with diosphenol and pulegone (AEH). Pulegone is hepatotoxic. The volatile oil is an irritant to the GI tract and the kidneys (CAN). Because of the irritant oil, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN).
1 tsp leaf/cup water up to several ×/day (APA); 10–30 drops extract in water or juice (APA); 1–2 g dry leaf as tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml leaf tincture (1:5 in 60% ethanol) (CAN); 2–4 ml leaf tincture (PNC); 4–8 ml concentrated leaf infusion (PNC); 2–4 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC); 0.3–1.2 ml liquid leaf extract (1:1 in 90% ethanol) (CAN).
agave sisalana
agrimonia eupatoria l.
tannin constituent agrimoniin (from A. pilosa)
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Agrimony) — Class 1 (AHP). None known (Kom; PHR). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Excessive doses may interact with anticoagulant, hypotensive, and hypertensive thera- pies. As with other tannin-rich herbs, “excessive use” should be avoided. In view of the lack of toxicity data, use of agrimony should be avoided during pregnancy and lactation. Reportedly affects the menstrual cycle (CAN).
Dosages (Agrimony) — 3 g herb (KOM; PHR); 3–6 g herb (APA); 1–1.5 g (BIS); 2–4 g 3 ×/day (CAN); 1 tsp herb/cup water (RFW); 1–3 ml extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 1–4 ml tincture (1:5) in 45% alcohol 3 ×/day (CAN).
agrostemma githago
allantoin, saponin mix
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Seed toxic, 2–3 g considered harmless to humans, more than 5 g is potentially lethal (PH2). Signs of intoxication; colic, conjunctivosis, cramps, delirium, diarrhea, dizziness, headache, lacrimation, mucositis, and restlessness (PH2). LD50 (saponin mix) = 750 mg/kg orl mouse (HH2). LD50 (saponin mix) = 2.3 mg/kg ivn rat (HH2). LD50 (saponin mix) = 50 mg/kg orl rat (HH2).
Homeopathic only (HH2; PH2).
ailanthus altissima
glaucarubinone, ailanthinone, ailanthone, glaucarubin, chaparrin
Not covered (AHP). Large doses are potentially poisonous (FAD). Large doses may cause diarrhea, dizziness, headache, queasiness, and tingling in the limbs (PH2).
6–9 g dry bark (PHR).
ailanthus altissima (mill.) swingle
ajuga chamaepitys
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
1 tbsp decoction (1 oz dry herb/pint boiling water) several ×/day (GMH).
ajuga reptans
None stated (PHR).
Not given (PHR). 60 g herb boiled in 1 liter water for biliary disorders (CRC).
akebia quinata
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Overdoses may induce colic, diarrhea, enterosis, and gastrosis. Not for pregnant women (PH2).
3–9 g in decoction (HH2).
albizia julibrissin
According to the WOI, this plant shares all the medicinal indications of Albizia lebbek.
9–30 g bark; 3–9 g flowers (FAY).
albizia lebbeck
3–6 ml/day (1:2 liquid extract) (KEB).
alcea rosea
alchemilla vulgaris
Class 1 (AHP). Tannin warnings. None reported (BIS). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1–2 tsp (1–2 g) herb/cup water (APA; WIC); 2–4 g/herb/cup tea (PHR; PH2); 1–2 g herb (1 tsp = 0.9 g) (BIS); 3–6 g herb/day (KOM); 5–10 g herb (KOM); 5–10 g herb tincture (APA); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC).
alchornea floribunda
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Drug considered highly toxic, high doses causing excitation and cramps. In Africa “deaths through exhaustion have been observed among humans following over-stimulation and hallucination” (PH2).
aletris farinosa
Class 2d (AHP). Antagonizes some oxytocins (AHP). In Canada, it is not allowed as a nonmedicinal ingredient in oral-use products (AHP). None reported (PHR). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Though used for colic, “colicroot” may cause hypogastric colic (FAD).
1.5 g herb/100 ml water (PH2); 0.3–0.6 g powdered root (PNC); 0.3–1 ml liquid extract (PNC); 2–4 ml herb elixir (PNC).
aletris farinosa l.
aleurites moluccana
Toxic and irritant. Seeds dangerous to eat (WO2).
alisma plantago-aquatica l.
allium cepa
Class 1. Some idiopathic allergies (JAD). Allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and contact dermatosis reported (WHO). Feeding rats 1 g
0.25–1 onion (2–5 oz) (APA); 1 onion/day (JAD); 50 g fresh onion or 20 g dry onion (KOM; SHT; WHO); 10–20 ml bulb or leaf infusion (KAP); 1 tsp onion juice 3–4 ×/day (APA); 4–5 tsp tincture/day (PHR); 4–5 tbsp onion syrup (PHR); 1–3 g powdered seed (KAP).
allium sativum
allicin, thiol-bearing compounds, Ajoene, Sulphides
Class 2c (AHP). Some thiol-bearing compounds in garlic, onion, and their relatives can cause acantholysis in vitro (Brenner et al., 1995) and possibly pemphigus in vivo. “More than 5 cloves a day may induce gas and heartburn (Castleman, 1996) and ‘thin blood’” (people taking blood thinners may thereby over-thin their blood). “May potentiate the effect of antihypertensive and anticoagulant medications” | Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Garlic) — Class 2c (AHP). Some thiol-bearing compounds in garlic, onion, and their relatives can cause acantholysis in vitro (Brenner et al., 1995) and possibly pemphigus in vivo. “More than 5 cloves a day may induce gas and heartburn (Castleman, 1996) and ‘thin blood’” (people taking blood thinners may thereby over-thin their blood). “May potentiate the effect of antihypertensive and anticoagulant medications” (SHT). No known contraindications during pregnancy and lactation (SKY). Some people are very allergic to garlic. Contraindicated in hyperthyroidism (TRA). Commission E reports rare GI disturbances, allergic reactions, change of odor of skin and breath. Sulphides may irritate the GI tract or cause dermatosis (CAN). Allergic reactions of contact dermatosis and severe asthmatic attacks (from inhalation of garlic powder). Topical application of garlic or garlic oil may cause local irritating effects. Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea may occur following ingestion of fresh garlic bulbs, extracts, or oil (AEH1). Fresh garlic is reportedly dangerous to children (AHP). Use sparingly with children under 2 years; may irritate mouth or stomach if used too liberally (WAM). Though possibly “useful for mild hypertension ... routine use is not recommended.” “Avoid concomitant use ... with NSAIDS, anticoagulants, and drugs that inhibit liver metabolism (e.g., cimetidine (Tagamet), ciproflaxin (Cipro), clarithromycin, diltiazem (Cardizem), enoxacin, erythromycin, fluoxetine (Prozac), fluvoxamine, itraconazole, ketoconazole, nefazodone, paroxetine (Paxil), ritonavir) may at least additively and perhaps synergistically interact with garlic.” (MAM) Watch also with drugs extensively metabolized by the liver (alprazolam, amitriptyline, astemizole, carbamazepine, cisapride, clozapine, corticosteroids, cyclosporine, desipramine, diazepan (Valium), imipramine, phenytoin (Dilantin), propranolol, terfenadine (Seldane), theophylline, triazolam, warfarin (Coumadin), and drugs that may be affected by liver inhibition (e.g., propranolol, diazepam) (MAM). MAM tabulates allergic contact dermatosis, burning GI sensations, diaphoresis, diarrhea, light-headedness, menorrhagia, metrorrhagia, nausea, spinal epidural hematoma, and vomiting as side effects of garlic (MAM). At 3 × 300 mg/day coated garlic powder tablet, GI discomfort was the most frequent side effect; also bloating, dizziness, headache, hypotensive circulatory reactions, outbreaks of sweating; daily doses of 900–1200 mg were associated with garlic odor. | LD50 = 60 mg/kg ivn mouse (SHT), 120 mg/kg scu mouse (M11; SHT). Rats fed up to 2000 mg/kg garlic extract for 6 months showed no weight loss but did show a slightly reduced food intake relative to controls.” There were no changes in renal function, hematologic parameters, or selected serologic parameters, and there was no evidence of any pathologic changes in organs or tissues.
9–15 g fresh bulb (FAY); 0.25–0.5 cup fresh bulb (PED); 6–12 g dry bulb (PED); 9 g dry bulb:45 ml alcohol/45 ml water (PED); 1–5 cloves/day (APA); 2–4 g 3 ×/day (CAN); 4 g garlic or one average clove; 5000 µg allicin/day (SKY); 4 g fresh garlic/day (KOM); 1.5–6 g fresh tuber (KAP); 2–4 ml tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.03–0.12 ml garlic oil/day (CAN); 1–2 minims garlic oil (KAP); 2–8 ml garlic syrup (CAN; PNC); 2–4 ml garlic juice (CAN; PNC); 1 (400 mg) StX/day; 3–4 (550 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (NH); 1 enteric coated 400 mg tablet (StX to contain at least 3 mg allicin potential) 1 ×/day at mealtime (NH); 600–900 mg/day coated garlic (SHT). | 4 g fresh garlic or equivalent preparations
allium schoenoprasum
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Poison to mammals (USDA nomenclature database).
Food farmacy (JAD).
allium ursinum
While not covered by AHP, I think it merits their AHP Class 2c (JAD). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Some thiol-bearing compounds in garlic, onion, and their relatives can cause acantholysis in vitro and possibly pemphigus in vivo. Too much may induce flatulence, heartburn, and “thin blood” (people taking blood thinners may overthin their blood thereby). Some people are allergic to garlic relatives. Commission E reports foul breath, rare GI disturbances, and allergic reactions. CAN cautions that the sulphides may irritate the GI tract or cause dermatosis (CAN).
Food farmacy; 2–4 g root or shoot 3 ×/day (JAD).
alnus glutinosa
Not covered (AHP; KOM). None reported in PDR.“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Regrettably, PHR and still PH2 report hypericin, probably meaning hyperoside. Hyperoside is what was reported in my CRC Handbook of Medicinal Herbs (1985) and in Hager’s Handbuch der Pharmazeutischen Praxis, ed. 2. So far, I have not yet found hypericin reliably reported outside the genus Hypericum, but hyperoside is widely reported.
aloin, aloe emodin, anthraquinones, anthranoid
Do not use this product if you have abdominal pain or diarrhea. Consult a health care provider prior to use if you are pregnant or nursing. Discontinue use in the event of diarrhea or watery stools. Not for long term use. | Gel Class 1 Internally; Gel Class 2d Externally (AHP); Powder Class 2b, 2c, 2d. Anthraquinones may be purgative and GI tract irritant (CAN). Commission E reports contraindications, adverse effects, and interactions of anthranoid laxatives (AEH). Because of its laxative and reputed abortifacient actions, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. However, they suggest that topical, but not oral, application may be okay in pregnancy and lactation (CAN). The latex can be a drastic laxative. Contraindicated for pregnant women and children (LRNP). Do not use internally in pregnancy (WAM). Do not use with undiagnosed abdominal pain (WAM). Do not use internally for more than 10 days (WAM). Epidemiological studies in Germany reveal that abusers of anthranoid laxatives have three times higher rate of colon carcinoma (AEH:115). May cause allergic dermatosis. Taken in excess may result in ulcers or irritated bowels (TMA, 1996). Hypoglycemic. Naturopaths Yarnell and Meserole (1996) state that people allergic to aloe may develop a severe rash following its application. Alcoholic extract at 100 mg/kg for 3 months toxic in mice (AAB).
Do not exceed recommended dose. | 50–200 mg powder (APA); 50–300 mg powder in a single dose at bedtime (AHP); 1 tbsp gel 3 ×/day (APA); 25 mg in 701 mg soybean oil, 1–2 softgels 3 ×/day; apply topically; or 1 tbsp juice after meals (SF).
aloe vera
nondialysable fraction (with mixed polysaccharides), endogenous cyclooxygenase synthesizing prostaglandins, PGE-2, TXB-2, PGD-2, PGF-2, 6 keto-PGF-1b, ZPGE2, anthranoid laxatives, hydroxyanthraquinones, Anthraquinones
Dermatosis, diarrhea, intestinal cramps, ulcers. Also contraindicated in hemorrhoids, ileus, and nephropathy (BIS; CAN; KOM), intestinal obstruction, abdominal pain of unknown causes, any enteritis (appendicitis, colitis, Crohn’s disease, irritable bowel syndrome), and menstruation (AHP). Commission E reports contraindications, adverse effects, and interactions of anthranoid laxatives (AEH). Because of its laxative and reputed abortifacient actions, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. However, they suggest that topical, but not oral, application may be okay in pregnancy and lactation (CAN). The latex can be a drastic laxative. Contraindicated for pregnant women and children (LRNP). Do not use internally in pregnancy (WAM). Do not use with undiagnosed abdominal pain (WAM). Do not use internally for more than 10 days (WAM). Epidemiological studies in Germany reveal that abusers of anthranoid laxatives have three times higher rate of colon carcinoma (AEH:115). May cause allergic dermatosis. Taken in excess may result in ulcers or irritated bowels (TMA, 1996). Hypoglycemic. Naturopaths Yarnell and Meserole (1996) state that people allergic to aloe may develop a severe rash following its application. Alcoholic extract at 100 mg/kg for 3 months toxic in mice (AAB). Naturopaths Yarnell and Meserole (1996) state that people allergic to aloe may develop a severe rash following its application. Anthraquinones may be purgative, and GI tract irritant (CAN). Because of its laxative and reputed abortifacient actions, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. “Anthraquinones may be secreted into breast milk” (AHP). Do not use more than 8–10 days (AHP). “Do not use in cases of abdominal pain or diarrhea. Discontinue use if diarrhea or watery stools occur. Consult a health care provider prior to use in pregnancy or nursing. Not for long-term use or overdosage (AHP). Speaking of Aloe spicata, “Because of its drastic laxative action it is not commonly employed in the United States.
50–300 mg at bedtime (AHP); 50–200 mg dried juice or equivalent per day (KOM); 50–200 mg dried juice or equivalent 3 ×/day (CAN); 1 (250 mg) capsule at bedtime (NH); 100–300 mg (PNC); 1 tsp juice after meals (SF). As a laxative for adults and children over 10 years old, 0.04–0.11 g of the dry juice of Barbados or Curaçao aloe or 0.06–0.17 g Cape aloe corresponding to 10–30 mg hydroxyanthraquinones/day (or 0.1 g juice as single dose in the p.m.) (WHO).
alo ferox
Not for use in pregnancy; overdose may cause diarrhea, gastrosis, nephrosis, and pelvic congestion (ZUL). Nectar possibly narcotic (ZUL).
aloysia citrodora
glycosides of apigenin
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). “Terpene-rich volatile oils are generally regarded as irritant and may cause kidney irritation during excretion.” (CAN) Hence, patients with renal problems should avoid it. Excessive doses are best avoided during pregnancy and lactation (CAN).
45 ml decoction, several ×/day (CAN); 2–5 cups decoction (5–29 g leaf/liter water)/day (PH2).
flavonoids, anthocyanins, polyphenols
Contraindicated in pregnancy, nursing, and in children under 12 years of age. Since the urinary antisepsis depends on an alkaline environment, acidifying herbs should be avoided (PH2). At 5 g/kg orl cat, the leaves cause the same intoxication as a toxic dose of hydroquinone (HH2). Liver damage could occur with long-term use or overdose, due to possible hepatotoxicity of the hydroquinones released. Hydroquinone intoxication, apparently roughly dose dependent, may occur with many Ericaceae, proportionate to their hydroquinone content. Without comparative analysis, we may even add the warning to other blueberries, cranberries, and bearberries.
2 g/cup tea (PH2).
alpinia galanga
1’-acetoxychavicol-acetate, 1’-acetoxyeugenol-acetate
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (PH2).
1–2 g (HHB).
alpinia officinarum
Class 1 (AHP). None reported (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
0.5–1 g herb/cup 1–4 ×/day (PHR; PH2) 0.5–1.5 g powdered herb or 1.5–2 g tincture (HHB); 2–4 g rhizome/day (KOM); 0.62–1.25 g powdered rhizome (MAD); 2–4 g rhizome tincture/day (KOM); 1.5–2 g rhizome tincture several ×/day (MAD).
alstonia constricta
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
As 1:1 liquid extract (average dose 4–8 ml); 1:8 or 1:10 tinctures (average dose 2–4 ml/day); of 1:20 infusion (average dose 15–30 ml/day) (HHB; PH2).
althaea officinalis
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports absorption of other drugs taken simultaneously may be delayed (AEH; PH2). High pectin/mucilage content may interfere with uptake of other pharmaceuticals, especially hypoglycemics (CAN; KOM). May interfere with existing hypoglycemic therapy (CAN). Safer than coffee in my book. Remote chance of gossypol. Volatile acids, oils, and tannins may irritate the urinary tract (PED). Antimicrobial activity against Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus. Mucilage can protect irritated mucous membranes and digestive, respiratory, and urinary tract as well as skin (SKY). Did not show antiedemic or antiinflammatory activity in carrageenan tests (CAN).
1 tsp leaf/cup water (APA); 5 g leaf/day (KOM; PH2); 2–5 g leaf (1 tsp = 1.4 g) or in tea (BIS); 2–5 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC); 2–5 ml liquid leaf extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 5–6 g root 3 ×/day (SKY); 6 g root/day (KOM; PH2); 3–10 g root (1 tsp = 3 g) (BIS); 1–2 tsp root/cup water (APA); 2–5 g root, or in cold tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 10–15 g root/150 ml water/90 minutes, warm to drink (PH2); 2–5 g dry root/day (PED); 1/8–1/3 cup fresh root (PED); 10 g root syrup (APA); 2–8 ml root syrup (PNC); 2–5 ml liquid root extract (PNC); 2–5 ml liquid root extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 5–15 ml root tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 2–10 ml althea syrup 3 ×/day (CAN); 6–8 g/200 cc sweet plant water (2 tbsp every 2 hours) (JFM); 20 g plant decoction in 1 liter water for tonsilitis (JFM).
amanita muscaria
Signs of intoxication include confusion, cramps, dizziness, enteralgia, mania, psychostimulation, then sedation vomiting (PH2).
Don’t take it (JAD).
amaranthus hypochondriacus
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Fruit toxic; all parts potentially toxic (FAD).
Make decoction, boiling down 1 lb of bark in 1 gallon water; reduce to 2 quarts; take wineglassful 2–3 ×/day (CEB but XXX for Jim Duke). For anemia, a fistful of root bark to 1 gallon water; reduce to 1 pint; mix with wine and infusion of wild grape vine (CEB).
Class 3 (AHP). Whole plant highly toxic (CRC); overdose fatal (DEM). Too toxic to use (JAD; PH2). Some of the alkaloids transdermally dangerous (PH2).
0.3–2 ml tincture (1:10)/day (HHB; PHR); 60–240 mg fl extract; 120–600 mg tincture (MAD). Old daily dose 100 mg (PH2).
Unknown ID
Class 2b. High doses may irritate kidneys and urinary tract (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
100 g dry herb, 350 ml water, 450 ml alcohol (HHB); 4 tsp (3.8 g) herb in cold extract (MAD); 2–4 g in tea as single dose (PH2); 2–8 ml liquid extract (PNC).
ammi visnaga
Not covered (AHP). Adverse effects may include dizziness, elevated hepatic transaminase, fatigue, insomnia, pseudoallergic reactions, reversible cholestatic jaundice, vertigo, and vomiting (PHR; SHT; WO2). Prolonged use or overdose may cause allergic symptoms, anorexia, constipation, elevated liver enzymes, headache, insomnia, nausea, queasiness, and vertigo (BIS; PHR). Phototoxic coumarins. Commission E approved Bishop’s Weed on March 13, 1986, but reversed itself as of April 15, 1994, condemning it because of excessive therapeutic risk and unproven efficacy (renal colic, spastic urinary tract disorders). “Ammi fruits may no longer be prescribed in Germany for this or any other indication” (SHT).
20 mg pyrones, calculated as khellin (BIS); 0.5 g powdered fruit/cup water (1 tsp = 2.5 g) (BIS).
amomum aromaticum
cineole
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Overdoses may lead to poisoning. Over-rationalizing, the Herbal PDR hints that the efficacy, if any, of the drug, may hark back to its cineole content, yet speaks of the potential for life-threatening poisonings due to overdoses of cineole. (Methinks empirical wisdom will have evolved away from any such intoxications, and that PH2 is dabbling in nitpickology.) Skillfully, PH2 says, “although scientific data regarding this are not available.” These are what I call hypothetical activities, positive and negative, often contemplated, the yea-sayers touting the goods of cineole, the nay-sayers touting the hazards of cineole. Certainly many species may be richer in cineole, including the well-known true cardamom, one of the more expensive of spices. Even if the EO were pure cineole, this species would contain only 10,000 ppm cineole.
30 grains with quinine for neuralgia (DEP); 10–30 seeds (HH2); 1–2 ml tincture (HH2); 3–6 g drug in decoction (HH2; PH2).
amomum compactum
amorphophallus konjac
glucomannan
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). May cause diarrhea. Severe esophageal obstructions reported for glucomannan tablets (always take with plenty of water) (APA). “Australian health authorities have banned tablets containing glucomannan” (APA). May alter insulin requirements (APA).
2 (500 mg) tablets glucomannan 1 hour before meals (APA).
anacardium occidentale
anacyclus pyrethrum
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). In large doses, may irritate stomach mucus, causing bloody stools, tetanic cramps, and stupor (WO2). Seeds may cause abortion in some 15% of albino rats (WO3). The 2% alcoholic root extract is as anesthetic but lasting longer than 2% xylocaine-hydrochloride (WO3).
20 grains (GMH); 20–30 drops tincture (GMH); 0.5–1 g root powder (KAP).
anagallis arvensis
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Cucurbitacins could eventually generate GI problems or nephrosis (PH2). The aromatic oil, if taken internally, can cause headache and nausea (WO2). Of 22 plant extracts tested against Microsporium canis, pimpernel was most potent (IC90, 100–15 µg/ml) (X10680445).
20 grains flower 4 ×/day for epilepsy (GMH); 15–60 grains powdered leaf (GMH); 1.8 g powdered herb 4 ×/day (HH2; PH2); for dropsy, hepatosis, and nephrosis, steep 1 tsp powdered herb/glass water 10 minutes and sip throughout the day (HH2; PH2).
anamirta cocculus
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Very poisonous, causing convulsions, delirium, depression, diaphoresis, disturbed coordination, dizziness, dyspnea, headache, nausea, and spastic twitching (PH2; WOI; WO2). 2–3 g fruit can kill a human (HH2); 2.4 g have killed a person (WOI).
Up to two fruits (HH2); do not take without responsible dispenser (JAD); 1–5 mg picrotoxin ivn; or 1 mg suppositories for 3 weeks (PH2).
ananas comosus
bromelain
Class 1 (JAD). Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Some people may be allergic to bromelain. Side effects include allergy, diarrhea, GI problems, metrorrhagia, nausea, and vomiting (APA; KOM). May augment antiaggregant or anticoagulant activity of other blood thinners (KOM). Bromelain may increase blood and urinary levels of tetracyclines or other antibiotics (KOM; PH2). Large doses of ripe (I would have said unripe) fruit juice are reported to cause uterocontractions, so it might be contraindicated in pregnancy (APA).
250–500 mg bromelain 3 ×/day (APA); 80–320 raw mg bromelain/day (KOM; PH2). Fruit food farmacy.
ananas comosus (l.) merr.
Bromelain
Contraindications: some people may be allergic to Bromelain. Side effects: allergy, diarrhea, GI problems (KOM). May augment antiaggregant or anticoagulant activity of other blood thinners (KOM). May increase blood and urinary levels of tetracyclines (KOM). This is the only case of Fleming et al., missing a Blumenthal et al. Commission E–approved drug, the American food plant, pineapple, with its proteolytic bromelain, a very active compound indeed.
250–500 mg 3 ×/day (APA); 80–320 mg bromelain/day (KOM).
anaphalis margaritacea
andira araroba aguan
Caution: easily absorbed dermally and potentially nephrotoxic (EFS); 200 mg internally can induce diarrhea, nausea, and nephrosis. Powder is a respiratory irritant (CRC); sawdust muco- and occulo-irritant (CRC). Severely irritant to the skin and mucous membranes. As little as 100 mg administered externally can lead to diarrhea, nephritis, and vomiting (PH2).
One-half grain (GMH).
andira inermis
berberine, biochanin-A
Not covered (AHP; APA; KOM; PHR). Contains berberine and biochanin-A, both of which have many biologically important activities (WO2).
andrographis paniculata
Class 2b (abortifacient); large oral doses may cause GI distress, anorexia, and emesis (AHP; KEB). Contraindicated in pregnancy (KEB). Urticaria is a rare side effect (4%) (MAB). Andrographolides LD50 = 13,400–40,000 mg/kg orl (MAB).
1.5–6 g dry herb/day or 3–12 ml fluid extract (1:2) (KEB).
anemarrhena asphodelioides
Class 1 (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Not for use with diarrhea (PH2). Large doses may cause colic, diarrhea, enteritis, gastrosis (PH2). Mangiferin in large doses may repress nerves and heart.
6–12 g in tea (PH2).
anemone acutiloba
anemone nemorosa
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Internally may cause colic and diarrhea, irritating GI tract and urethra; externally a vesicant, irritating skin and mucus membrane (PH2). Ingestion of 30 freshly harvested plants is considered the lethal dose for humans (PH2).
anemone pulsatilla l.
Not covered (AHP). Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages of the dehydrated herbs” (PH2). Commission E reports higher doses of herb may irritate the kidneys and urinary tract, and pregnancy is an absolute contraindication (AEH). CAN does not recommend it for internal use and caution protanemonin is allergenic and irritant. Pulsatilla contact has caused hyperpigmentative vesicles. Because it is an irritant (fresh plant), and reputed to affect the menstrual cycle and cause uterine activity, in vitro and in vivo, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Inhalation of EO can irritate conjunctiva and nasal mucosa (CAN).
Don’t take it! (APA); 0.12–0.3 g herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.1–0.4 g powdered herb (MAD); 0.12–0.3 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 0.12–0.3 ml liquid herbal extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.3–1.0 ml herb tincture (1:10 in 40% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.3–2 ml herb tincture (PNC).
anemopsis californica
methyleugenol
Avoid during pregnancy (Hobbs). In animal studies, the sedative effect of roots and the compound methyleugenol potentiates the hypnotic action of thiopental, pentobarbital, and hexobarbital. Also enhances the central depressant effect of chlorpromazine. Urinary irritant (HAD).
4–8 grams root/day; 1–2 drops fluid tincture 2–3 ×/day (Hobbs); 20 to 60 drops fresh root tincture (fresh 1:2, dry 1:5, 60% alcohol) to 5 ×/day; 2–4 oz cold root infusion to 5 ×/day (Moore1).
anethum graveolens
Class 1 (AHP, 1997). None known (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Contact photodermatosis possible as in most umbellifers. Fresh juice may possibly cause photodermatosis (PHR). We might extend to all apiaceous oils Bisset’s comments on celery seed oil, “The drug is contraindicated in inflammation of the kidneys,” since apiaceous EOs may increase the inflammation as a result of epithelial irritation (BIS). TRAMIL conservatively cautions for dill and fennel; contraindicated in women of reproductive age; limit dosage to 3 days (TRA).
Chew 1/2–1 tsp seed (APA); 2 tsp crushed seed/cup water (APA); 3 g seed (KOM; PHR); 0.3–1 ml concentrated dill water (PNC); 0.1–0.3 g EO (KOM; PHR); 0.05–2 ml (I’d have said 0.05–0.2) EO (PNC); cf celery seed, close kin (PNC).
furocoumarins, furanocoumarins, coumarins, anticoagulant coumarins, bergapten
Class 2b, 2d (avoid prolonged exposure to sunlight) (AHP). Contraindicated for peptic ulcer. Commission E reports photosensitivity due to furocoumarins (AEH). Furanocoumarins may cause phototoxic dermatosis (CAN). Anticoagulant coumarins may interact with anticoagulant therapy, additively or synergistically, or perhaps even antagonistically. Angelica and root oils reported to cause photodermatosis and phototoxicity, respectively. Root oil should be limited to 7800 ppm in skin products when the skin is to be exposed to UV. Root Oil LD50 = 2200 mg/kg orl mouse; LD50 = 1160 mg/kg orl rat (CAN); toxic in rats 1870 mg/kg (BIS); LD50 = >5000 mg/kg top. rabbit (CAN). We may extend to all apiaceous oils Bisset’s comments on celeryseed oil, “The drug is contraindicated in inflammation of the kidneys,” since apiaceous EOs may increase the inflammation as a result of epithelial irritation (BIS). Bergapten is a suspected carcinogen. Angelica root, reportedly abortifacient, should not be used in “pregnancy and lactation in amounts exceeding those used in foods” (CAN). Canadians list “as an unacceptable non-medicinal ingredient for oral use products” (AHP). Do not use if fever, chills, headache, thirst, sweating, and a rapid pulse are present (TMA, 1996).
1 tsp powdered leaf, root, or seed/cup of water (APA); 1.5 g root (1 tsp = ~1.5 g)/day (BIS); 4.5 g root (BIS; KOM; PH2); 1–2 g root in tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5–2 g powdered root (PNC); 1–2 g seed day (CAN); 2–5 g dry leaf 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–5 ml leaf tincture (1:5 in 45% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5–2 ml root tincture (1:5 in 50% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1.5 g root tincture (1:5) (KOM); 2–5 ml leaf extract (1:1 in 25% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.2–5 ml root extract (1:1 in 25% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml liquid root extract (PNC); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); wineglass of root tea (PNC).
angelica archangelica
angelica sinensis
Psoralens, Ligustilide, Butylidenephthalide, Butylphthalide
Class 2b (AHP). Psoralens can be phototoxic and carcinogenic. The aqueous extract inhibits experimentally induced IgE titers, suggesting immunosuppressive potential. “Its use cannot be recommended” (LRNP, April 1990). Pregnant and nursing women, or patients with diarrhea, should not take except under a doctor’s instruction. AHP notes that it is Americans and Canadians, not Chinese, who warn against use in pregnancy. Contraindicated in those with bleeding tendencies or heavy menstrual periods, during first trimester of pregnancy, for abortion-prone women, and in acute viral infections (KEB). “Canadian regulations do not allow dong-quai as a non-medicinal ingredient for oral use products” (Michols, 1995).
4.5–12 g (FAY); 3–15 g root (APA); 3–4 g root/day (SKY); 1–3 tsp root/day; 1–3 tbsp fresh root (PED); 2–4 g dry root (PED); 3–15 g dry root/day (MAB); 2–6 g dry root/day or 4–12 ml fluid extract (1:2) (for all his Chinese posologies, these ratios apply) (KEB); 3 g dry root:15 ml alcohol/15 ml water (PED); 4–8 ml flower extract (1:2) (MAB); 3 (530 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (NH).
angostura trifoliata
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Angostura) — Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Larger doses may induce nausea, vomiting, or both (PH2).
0.5 g (HHB).
antennaria dioica
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
0.5–1 drachm fluid extract (GMH); wineglass full (1 oz herb/pint boiling water) (GMH); 1 g/cup hot tea (PH2).
anthoxanthum odoratum
Not covered (AHP). None known at proper dosage. Overdose may cause dizziness and headache. Liver problems, reversible after long-term overdosage (PH2).
anthyllis vulneraria
Antibacterial (1; HH2), Antiviral (1; PH2), Astringent (f; EFS), Depurative (1; EFS; PH2), Diuretic (f; EFS), Laxative (f; EFS), Mutagenic (1; PH2), Vulnerary (f; EFS)
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1 dessert-spoon flower/250 ml water (PH2).
aphanes arvensis
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). In view of the lack of toxicological data, excessive use, especially during lactation and pregnancy, should be avoided (CAN).
2–4 g herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml liquid herbal extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1 drachm fluid herb extract (GMH); 2–10 ml herbal tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
apium graveolens
volatile oil, furanocoumarins, phototoxic furanocoumarins, apigenin
Class 2b[5], 2d. Individuals with renal disorders should use with caution. Commission E reports potential allergenicity, including anaphylactic shock. Photosensitizing. Contains phototoxic furanocoumarins (AHP). CAN cautions that the furanocoumarins may cause phototoxicity and dermatosis. Still, they summarize that no side effects or toxicity are documented for celery seed. Photosensitivity reactions have been reported as a result of external contact with celery stems. Even anaphylactic reactions are reported following oral ingestion of the stems. Archives of Dermatology (1990) reported severe phototoxicity in a woman consuming celeriac and then going to a tanning parlor. The new Herbal PDR (Gruenwald et al., 1998) notes that levels of phototoxic furanocoumarins can rise 200-fold under storage conditions, especially if the root is fungally or yeast infected (PHR). No side effects, toxicity documented for celery fruit (CAN). Persons with kidney problems should be cautious. The drug is contraindicated in inflammation of the kidneys, since apiaceous EOs may increase the inflammation as a result of epithelial irritation. Contraindicated during pregnancy (uterotonic activity demonstrated for the EO (CAN)). Celeryseed oil abortifacient (JFM). Oil, though stated to be nonirritant, nonphototoxic, and nonsensitizing in humans, is also reported to have uterotonic activity; the seeds are said to affect the menstrual cycle and even to be abortifacient (CAN). There’s a rare allergy, Birch-Celery Syndrome; people sensitive to birch or mugwort (watch out moxibustionists) pollen may have an immediate reaction just eating celery or taking celery seed products. “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (But, regrettably, it doesn’t give those therapeutic dosage levels.) So far, in my 5.5 years on celery seed extract, I have not knowingly suffered
200 g root boiled in 500 g water taking 1 cup every 3 hours as antigalactic (JFM); 1–2 leaves for colic (DEP); 1–4 g powdered seed (KAP; PNC); 1–2 tsp seed/cup water (APA); 1–2 g dry seed (PED); 2 g dry seed:10 ml alcohol/10 ml water (PED); 1 g mashed seed/cup hot water (PH2); 1.75 tsp crushed seed/cup water (APA); 0.05–0.1 ml (PNC); 0.5–1 tsp tincture to 3 ×/day (APA; WIC); 0.3–1.5 ml liquid extract (PNC); 0.3–1.2 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 60% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5–2 g or by decoction 1:5, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2 (500 mg) capsules (450 mg celery extract StX to contain at least 9.9 mg volatile oil in 50 mg synergistic base of whole celery seed powder) 2 ×/day, before meals (NH). Often standardized to 2.2% volatile oil. | (But, regrettably, it doesn’t give those therapeutic dosage levels.) So far, in my 5.5 years on celery seed extract, I have not knowingly suffered any side effects from the 2–4 capsules or tablets I take a day, every day, without fail, for the prevention of the gout crisis.
apocynum androsaemifolium
Cardiac glycosides
Class 3 (AHP). Cardiac glycosides. Canadian regulations preclude its use in food (AHP). Too toxic for experimentation (JAD).
apocynum cannabinum
Cardiac glycosides, Cymarin, apocannoside
Class 3 (AHP). Cardiac glycosides (AHP). Nausea and GI symptoms may occur even at therapeutic dosage; topically may irritate mucous membranes (PHR). Cymarin and apocannoside have antitumor activity (CEB).
10–30 drops liquid extract 3 ×/day; 0.3 to 0.6 ml tincture (1:10) (PHR; PH2).
aquilegia vulgaris
Not covered (AHP). None known (PHR). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Poisoning due to HCN not observed (PHR). Human fatalities reported (LEL).
Only homeopathic doses given (PH2).
arachis hypogaea
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Peanut) — Not covered (AHP; KOM).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Many people are violently allergic to peanut.
A handful is nice. 130 ml peanut oil at body temperature as an enema (PHR; PH2); 4 ml oil/10 liters water for skin bath (PHR).
aralia nudicaulis
aralia racemosa
Class 2b (AHP). None known for proper dosage (PH2). Not for use during pregnancy (PH2). Photodermatosis is possible (PH2).
2 g rhizome (HHB); 1.5 g rhizome/500 ml (PH2).
aralia spinosa
arbutus unedo
arctium lappa
inulin, mucilage, artipicrin, polyacetylenes, lignans, burdock fiber
Class 1 (AHP). CAN notes that it may conflict with other hypoglycemic medications. Physicians in Burgos, Spain, in 1995, reported three cases of contact dermatosis caused by burdock root poultices. Herbs for Health (November/December) page 68, reviewing Rodriguez, P. et al., 1995. Allergic contact dermatitis due to burdock. Contact Dermatitis 33(2):134–5. (However, a letter from Alvaro Palacios in Spain tells me this is based on contamination with belladonna). Should be avoided during pregnancy due to a slight estrogenic effect (WAM). CAN also cautions that because it is a uterine stimulant, in vivo, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN).
0.25–0.5 cup fresh root (PED); 1.25 tsp chopped or powdered root/cup water (1 tsp = ~2 g) (APA; BIS); 2–6 g dry root as tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 6–12 g dry root (PED); 9 g dry root:45 ml alcohol/45 ml water (PED); 2–8 ml liquid root extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 8–12 ml root tincture (1:10 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5–1 tsp tincture up to 3 ×/day (APA); 3 (475 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (APA; NH); 3 (470 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (NH); 0.5–2 ml liquid seed extract (PNC).
arctostaphylos uva-ursi
arbutin, hydroquinone, tannin, Gallic acid
Class 2b, 2d. Contraindicated in kidney disorders, irritated digestive conditions, acidic urine; not for prolonged used (AHP; AEH; WAM). Hepatosis, nausea, nephrosis, stomachache, vomiting. Use no more than 1 week, unless otherwise directed by physician. Not recommended for children, lactating, pregnant, or nephritic patients (AHP; PH2; SKY). Canadians discourage bearberry as a nonmedicinal ingredient for oral use (Michols, 1995). Do not take other urine acidifiers, which could lessen antisepsis (KOM). One gram of the cytotoxic hydroquinone, equivalent to 6–20 g plant material, totally extracted (I presume) has caused collapse, convulsions, cyanosis, delirium, nausea, shortness of breath, tinnitus, and vomiting. Five grams has proved fatal. Because of high tannin content, prolonged use of uva-ursi may cause chronic liver impairment. Since large doses are reportedly oxytocic, and in view of hydroquinone’s toxicity, “the use of uva-ursi during pregnancy and lactation is best avoided,” but in the last paragraph on page 259, the hydroquinone concentrations “provided by ingestion of therapeutic doses of uva-ursi are not thought to represent a risk to human health” (CAN).
10 g leaf (= 400–700 mg arbutin), take only a few days (APA); 10 g dry leaf in 1 quart cold water (SF); 12 g dry leaf/day (= 400–840 mg arbutin) (MAB); 3–6 g dry leaf (PED); 4.5 g dry leaf/22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 1.5–4 g leaf, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 tbsp fresh leaf (PED); 3 g herb/150 ml water 1–4 ×/day (PIP); 1.5–4 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–4 ml concentrated BPC infusion (CAN); 15–30 ml BPC fresh infusion (CAN); 5 ml tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 10–17 ml tincture (1:5); 4–8 ml fluid extract (1:2); 2–4 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC); 2–4 ml concentrated leaf infusion (PNC); 1–3 (500 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (NH); 250–500 mg StX (20% arbutin) (SKY).
areca catechu
argemone mexicana
sanguinarine, 11-oxo-triacontanoic acid, berberine
Ingestion of the seed oil can cause anemia, diarrhea, dysentery, high-tension glaucoma, and vomiting due to the ‘carcinogenic’ alkaloid, sanguinarine. Toxicity is due to interaction of sanguinarine and 11-oxo-triacontanoic acid. Milk of cows fed prickly poppy can cause glaucoma (WO2). LD50 of argemone oil = 9 ml/kg ipr mouse; sanguinarine 18 mg/kg (WBB). Seeds contain berberine, which may be helpful in MDR-resistant tuberculosis (JAD).
30 mimims oil (DEP); thimble full of seeds as emetic (DEP).
argyreia nervosa
A narcotic hallucinogen, packing a miserable hangover, with blurred vision, constipation, inertia, nausea, and vertigo (CRC). LD50 seeds 500 mg/kg.
arisaema triphyllum
Class 1 (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Contraindicated in pregnancy (PH2). Fresh material and improperly dried tubers contain dangerous levels of oxalates. “Toxicity is destroyed by proper drying” (AHP), but that is easier said than done (JAD). Ingestion can cause GI problems, even death, though the latter has not been not documented (CRC). Pungent substances irritate skin and mucous membranes (PH2). LD50 (lf lyophilisates) 2857 mg/kg orl mouse (HH3).
aristolochia clematitis
Class 2b, 3 (AHP). Contraindicated in pregnancy (PH2). Outlawed in U.S. because of aristolochic acid.
Don’t take it.
aristolochia serpentaria
Aristolochine, aristolochic acid (AA)
2b, 3 (AHP). Aristolochine can cause coma and death (CRC). FDA in 2000 banned import of plants containing the carcinogen, aristolochic acid (ca. 460 ppm in root (AHP)). Potentially carcinogenic, hepatotoxic, and nephrotoxic. “Related species are potentially lethal to animals” (AHP). Alcohol extract of fruit may cause nausea, gastric discomfort, or mild diarrhea. Aristolochic acid (AA) in high doses can cause kidney damage and has shown carcinogenic and mutagenic effects in some animal studies (AEH).
armoracia rusticana
Unknown ID
Class 2d Externally; not for use on broken skin; Class 2b Internally (AHP). Commission E reports contraindications of hypersensitivity and adverse effects of local reactions. Contraindications of hypersensitivity to sesquiterpene lactones and adverse effects of allergic reactions also reported. The tincture should not be applied in undiluted form (AEH). Irritant and allergic reactions from topical applications of arnica preparations. CAN caution that sesquiterpene lactones (SL), aromatic compounds widely distributed in certain plant families, with highest concentrations generally found in leaves and flowers, may cause dermatosis and GI tract irritation. Sheep and cattle poisonings due to SL-containing species have been reported. Cases of allergic contact dermatosis in humans have also been reported (AHED1). “Arnica is poisonous if taken internally. It is irritant to mucous membranes and ingestion may result in fatal gastroenterosis, muscle paralysis (voluntary and cardiac), increase or decrease in pulse rate, palpitation of the heart, shortness of breath, and may even result in death” (CAN). It contains cardiotonic principles and an adrenaline-like pressor substance (CAN). Vomiting, rapid pulse, redness of the face, stinging pains, heart and respiratory dysfunction, cerebral symptoms, rigor, severe diarrhea, abdominal pains, and bloody expectoration result from abuse of the flower tincture or decoction as an abortifacient possibly fatal. Children should not use internally or on open wounds (WAM). Because of the oxytocic sesquiterpene lactones, to be avoided when pregnant (BIS). Internal use not recommended anymore. Risk:benefit ratio probably not good. One fatal case resulted from ingestion of 70 g arnica tincture (SHT).
Do not take internally (APA); 2 g herb fl (1 tsp = ~0.5 g)/100 ml water (APA; BIS); 2 g herb/100 ml water (KOM).
arnica montana l.
+ (external); X (internal)
artemisia abrotanum
artemisia absinthium
thujone, Absinthin, Anabsinthin
Class 2b, 2d (AHP). Emmenagogue and uterotonic. Not for prolonged use. Do not exceed recommended dose (AHP). Do not use more than 4 consecutive weeks (SKY). None known (KOM). Contraindications of GI ulcer. Beware of the toxicity of high doses (AEH). Side effects due to thujone overdose include brain damage, convulsions, even death; insomnia, intestinal cramps, nausea, renal damage (rare), restlessness, seizures, stomach cramps, tremors, urine retention, vertigo, and vomiting (BIS; SKY). CAN cautions that thujone in the various volatile oils can cause severe gastrosis and convulsions. Documented fatalities have been mainly associated with ingestion of some such oils (but fatalities are reported with infusions and powders). Such oils should not be used internally or externally. Because of abortifacient and uterine activity caused by the thujone in such oils, their use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN).
Up to 1.5 g dry herb in tea (1 tsp = 1.5 g) 2–3 ×/day (AHP); 1–2 g dry herb (PNC); 1 tsp herb/cup water 1–3 ×/day, before or after meals (APA; SKY); 2–3 g herb/day (KOM); 3–5 g herb (PHR); 1–2 ml liquid herb extract (APA; PNC); 4–16 ml herb tincture (APA; PNC); 10–20 drops herb tincture in water 3 ×/day, before meals (SKY).
artemisia afra
One tbsp EO (essential oil) severely poisoned a worker, similar to thujone poisoning (ZUL).
artemisia annua
artemisinin, antiviral compounds
My secretary, Judi, is allergic to the nonflowering material, even in a sealed envelope (JAD). May cause allergy or dermatosis (FAD).
General; 4.5–9 g plant in decoction (FAY); 3 g plant juice/day for malaria (FAY); 30 g plant (dry leaf) or decoction (FAY); 10–20 g/day dry herb or 20–40 ml fluid extract (1:2) (for all KEB’s Chinese posologies, these ratios apply) (KEB); higher doses suggested for malaria and lupus (KEB); 50 mg/kg artemisinin for 3 days (KEB); 300 mg/day artemisinin for 50 days for SLE or 30–54 g herb/day.
artemisia cina
Not covered (AHP; KOM). 10 g can cause deadly poisoning. Intoxication can occur even with therapeutic dose, with epileptic convulsions, gastroenterosis, kidney irritation, muscle twitch, stupor, visual disorders (e.g., xanthopsia as with thujone).
25 mg for adults, follow with laxative (PH2); for children, 2 mg for each year of age. (Yet, the Austrian pharmacopoeia says 1–2 g as daily dosage, according to PH2.) Avoid allopathic dosage (PH2).
artemisia dracunculus
estragole
Class 1. 81% of EO may be estragole (AHP). Contains one compound that is carcinogenic in mice (APA). Pregnant women might avoid (APA).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). LD50 (ill-defined extract) = 215 mg/kg ipr mus (HH2).
1–2 tsp leaf/cup to 3 ×/day (APA).
artemisia vulgaris
arum maculatum
Not covered (AHP). Cyanide and oxalates make it too risky for any potential benefits.
Why bother; too dangerous (JAD).
Unknown ID
Class 2b, 2d. Contraindicated for infant colic. Emmenagogue, uterotonic (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Bitter acrid taste and disagreeable garlic-like odor, due mostly to its volatile oil. Odor imparted through excretions and eructations. Medicinal use may result in swollen lips, gastric burning, belching, flatulence, diarrhea, burning during urination, headache, dizziness, and convulsion (AEH; PHR; PH2). The gum of related species is an irritant to the skin and stomach, and causes dermatosis (CAN). Sulfur compounds in the oil may protect against fat-induced hyperlipidemia. Two double-blind studies report asafetida useful for irritable bowel syndrome (just below 5% significance level in one, near 1% in the other) (CAN). Because it is reputed to affect the menstrual cycle and to be an abortifacient, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. It oxidizes fetal hemoglobin but not adult hemoglobin. Coumarins may interfere with coagulation therapy and may cause chromosomal damage (CAN). 50–100 mg resin reported to cause convulsions in nervous people (AHP). Do not give to children; may cause methemoglobinemia (APA).
0.3–1 g asafetida resin 3 ×/day (APA; CAN; HHB; PNC); 2–4 ml asafetida tincture (CAN, PNC); 20 drops tincture (PH2).
asclepias incarnata
Not covered (AHP). None known at proper dosage (not stated) (PH2). Potentially toxic (FAD).
asclepias syriaca
asclepias tuberosa
Cardenolides, Asclepin
Class 2b, 2d. May cause nausea and vomiting (AHP; WAM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). CAN reports cardenolides can be irritant and cause cardiac activity and dermatosis. Because of cardioactive constituents and uterine activity in vivo, its use in pregnancy, lactation, and cardiac patients is to be avoided. May interfere with cardiac, depression, and hormone therapy (CAN; PH2; WAM). “Not allowed as a non-medicinal ingredient in oral use products in Canada” (Michols, 1995). Toxic in large quantities (FAD).
1–4 g root, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1 tbsp powdered root/8 oz warm liquid 1 ×/day (APA); 2.5–5 ml liquid root extract (APA; PNC); 1–4 ml liquid root extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–5 ml root tincture (1:10 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
asimina triloba
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Pawpaw) — Not covered (AHP; KOM). May be nauseant and allergenic (PH2). Retinosis or eye problems may possibly develop in those working with acetogenins or crushed seeds of the Annonaceae (JAD, personal communication from Dr. D. Warthen, USDA).
aspalathus sp.
aspalathin, (+)-catechin, chrysoeriol, iso-orientin, isoquercitrin, isovitexin, luteolin, nothofagin, orientin, quercetin, rutin, vitexin, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, ferulic acid, protocatechuic acid, syringic acid, vanillic acid
Class 1 (AHP; JAD). Not indexed (KOM; PHR; ZUL).
1–4 tsp dry leaf/cup water up to 3 ×/day (APA).
asparagus officinalis
Asparagusic acid, glutathione
Class 2d. Contraindicated in inflammatory kidney disorders (although Commission E contraindicates in irrigation therapy when edema is caused by impaired kidney or heart function, this is not of concern in oral therapy) (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports contraindications of inflammatory and renal diseases and adverse effects of allergic skin reactions (very rarely). Ironically, the diuretic shoots, which we eat, are not approved for therapeutic use (KOM). Allergic reactions occur very rarely (AEH). Workers canning asparagus may get “asparagus scabies” (PHR). Interactions with other drugs unknown (KOM).
Food farmacy (JAD); 1 tsp powdered seed in juice (APA); 45–60 g rhizome (KOM); 1 tbsp fresh root (PED); 1.5 g dry root (PED); 1.5 g:7 g alcohol, 8 ml water (PED). “Daily dosage is 45 to 80 g (PH2); a typical single dose is 800 mg” (PH2).
asparagus racemosus
aspidosperma quebracho-blanco schltdl.
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Large doses may cause cramps, diaphoresis, dyspnea, nausea, paralysis, vomiting, even death. Side effects include headache, lethargy, salivation, stupor, and vertigo (HH2; PH2).
Approved for food use (maximum use level is ca. 0.003%) e.g., ca. 35 ppm bark in baked goods, 30 ppm bark in candy (LAF)); 1–2 g bark per dose (HH2; PH2); 2.5–5 g bark tincture (HH2).
asplenium scolopendrium var. scolopendrium
1 “Teep” 3 ×/day.
astragalus gummifer
Not covered (AHP; KOM). None at therapeutic dosages except for rare allergy. Needs to be taken with plenty of water as do all bulking agents (PH2).
1 tsp (ca 3 g) granulated drug added to 250–300 ml liquid (PH2).
astragalus gummifer labill.
astragalus membranaceus
Class 1 (AHP). No side effects reported but “pregnant women should check with their practitioners before using.” Do not use with fever or during pregnancy (WAM). High (more than 30 g day) doses may induce high blood pressure, increased heart rate, insomnia, overstimulation, and/or palpitations (BO2). No botanist knows all the species of Astragalus, and some very toxic ones look pretty much like the innocuous ones. Some may contain dangerous levels of selenium.
2–4 tbsp fresh root/day (PED); 1–3 g root/day for long-term use (AKT); 10–30 g root/day (MAB); 9–15 g sliced root (FAY); 3–6 g dry root/day (PED); 4.5 g dry root:22 ml alcohol/23ml water (PED); 2–6 g dry root/day or 4–12 ml fluid extract (1:2) (KEB); 9–30 g/day to 69 g in cancer (BO2); 3–5 ml tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 6 (500 mg) capsules/day; 2 (400 mg) capsules 3 ×/day; 2–3 tablets or 500 mg capsules/day (SKY).
astragalus spp.
Class 1 (AHP). No side effects reported but “pregnant women should check with their practitioners before using.” Do not use with fever or during pregnancy (WAM). High (more than 30 g day) doses may induce high blood pressure, increased heart rate, insomnia, overstimulation, and/or palpitations (BO2). No botanist knows all the species of Astragalus, and some very toxic ones look pretty much like the innocuous ones. Some may contain dangerous levels of selenium. LD50 astragalus = 39,800 ipr mouse (MAB), LDlo = >100,000 mg/kg orl rat (BO2).
s/day; 2 (400 mg) capsules 3 ×/day; 2–3 tablets or 500 mg capsules/day (SKY). At 200 mg/kg root extract (that would be 20 g in me) increases human urine output by 64% and sodium excretion by 14.5%.
athyrium filix-femina
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Used as male fern but less powerful (GMH).
1–2 tablets or 10–20 drops 3 ×/day (PH2).
atractylodes japonica
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
0.5–1 g powdered rhizome (HH3; PH2).
atractylodes lancea
atractylodes macrocephala
Class 1 (AHP). LD50 (Decoction) 13,300 mg/kg ipr mouse (HH3).
6–12 g (HH3).
atropa belladonna
total alkaloids
Class 3 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports contraindications, adverse effects, and interaction of belladonna alkaloids (AEH). Canadians do not allow in food (Blackburn, 1993). Contraindicated: acute edema of the lungs, mechanical stenoses of GI tract, megacolon, narrow angle glaucoma, prostate adenoma, tachycardic arrhythmias; Side Effects: accommodation disturbances, cramps, decreased perspiration, dry mouth, dry skin, dysuria, flushing, hallucinations, hyperthermia (KOM; PH2); Drug Interactions: increasing anticholinergic activities of tricyclic antidepressants, amantadine and quinidine (KOM). Commission E contrasts (Belladonna): It’s rather disconcerting that two major books, reviewed in JAMA (1999), and claiming to represent Commission E, come out with widely different recommendations. Blumenthal et al. 1998, much better reviewed, approve belladonna leaf for spasms and colic-like pain in the areas of the gastrointestinal tract and bile ducts. Is that the same Commission E that Fleming et al. purports to report too? Fleming et al. contrastingly cite approval of the leaf for arrhythmia, cardiac insufficiency (NYHA I and II), liver and gallbladder complaints, and nervous heart complaints. Should the allopathic physician believe Blumenthal et al. (1998) or Fleming et al. (1998)?
Do not take (APA). Average single dose (0.05–0.1 g powdered leaf) (KOM; PH2); maximum single dose (0.2 g powdered leaf equivalent to 0.6 mg total alkaloids) (KOM); maximum daily dose (0.6 g powdered leaf equivalent to 1.8 mg total alkaloids) (KOM); 15–60 mg dry leaf extract (PNC); 0.5–2 ml herb tincture (PNC).
atropa belladonna l.
auricularia spp.
Not recommended for pregnant or lactating women.
15 g herb in tea 2 ×/day (HOB).
avena sativa
averrhoa carambola
Not covered (AHP). High oxalate content of fruits, comparable to rhubarb, might be risky for oxalate-sensitive individuals. No evidence of health risks from consuming preserves in moderation (PH2). Seeds possibly emmenagogue, emetic.
Fruits food farmacy (JAD). But see below.
azadirachta indica
nimbidin
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Neem) — Not covered (AHP). No health hazards known at proper dosage levels (PHR). Excessive doses can cause convulsions, dyspnea, stupor, even death (APA). The oil seems to be more toxic to children because of an as yet undefined toxin that is particularly significant to younger people. Intoxication suggests Reye’s
2–4 (500 mg) leaf-powder capsules with meals (trade recommendation); 100 g bark soaked in 1 liter water daily for one month as male contraceptive (SKJ).
bacopa monnieri
Bacosides A, Bacosides B
5–10 g powdered herb (KAP); 8–16 ml herb tea (KAP); 2–6 g dry herb or 4–12 ml fluid extract (1:2) (KEB).
ballota nigra
Class 1 (AHP). Because it is reputed to affect the menstrual cycle, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). Excessive use should be avoided in view of the limited toxicity data (CAN).
2–4 g herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–3 ml liquid herbal extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 ml herbal tincture (1:10 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
Allergic skin reactions (KOM; PIP). Commission E reports contraindications: allergic disposition; adverse effects: allergic skin reactions. Application on large surfaces maximum 10%. Not to be used for more than 1 week (AEH).
0.2–2 g/day (MAD). Galenics with 5–20% balsam, no more than 10% if to be applied over a large area (PIP).
banisteriopsis caapi
Not covered (AHP; KOM). 300 mg alkaloids may lead to collapse, nausea, ringing of the ears, and vomiting (PH2).
10 mg individual, 30 mg daily (parenteral) (HHB).
baptisia tinctoria
Isoflavones, Ethanol extracts, Polysaccharides, biochanin-A, daidzein, genistein
Class 2b, 2d (AHP). Not for long-term use except under supervision of a qualified practitioner (AHP). Contraindicated in pregnancy (PH2). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Large doses (e.g., 30 g) are potentially harmful and may induce cramps; mild intoxication with diarrhea, GI symptoms, nausea, and vomiting (FAD; PHR; PH2).
2–5 ml root tincture (PNC); 0.5–1 g root 3 ×/day (PHR).
Berbamine, Palmatine, Jatrorrhizine, Magnoflorine, Oxyacanthine, Berberine
Class 2b (AHP). Unapproved (KOM). Possibly hepatotoxic. Oral administration appeared to cause nausea, emesis, diarrhea, renal irritation, and nephrosis in unanesthetized dogs. Canadians do not allow berberine containing bark, even in alcoholic beverages. Commission E reports no risks are known for the fruit, but other parts contain the alkaloid berberine (AEH). One source says high doses are dangerous, but Commission E says that berberine at 500 mg (equiv. to >8 g root bark with 6.1% alkaloid) is well tolerated (KOM). But high dosages (of berberine) may generate serious dyspnea and spasms, ending in lethal primary paralysis of the respiratory system (25 mg/kg in cats and dogs). Such doses may also cause hemorrhagic nephrosis (KOM). Death from berberine has been reported (MAB). I suspect the herbal PDR erred in saying of the root bark, “Dosages over 4 mg will bring about light stupor, nosebleeds, vomiting, diarrhea, and kidney irritation.” It also said, “No health hazards or side effects are known in conjunction with the proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages” (PH2), and gave 2 g as root bark dosage (Gruenwald, 2000). Though no toxicity problems have been observed so far, avoid preparations during pregnancy due to uterotonic activity (PNC). Contraindicated for pregnant women due to its stimulant effect on the uterus. Berberine is reportedly mutagenic in yeast cells and Ames test (intercalation into the DNA) (PH2). Upset stomach, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, or faintness may occur. Convulsions, drastic lowering of blood pressure, heart rate, or respiration may be caused by large doses of barberry. In cases of heart disease or chronic respiratory conditions, consult health care practitioner before using (TMA, 1996). If Barney is right in saying that “goldenseal should not be taken for long periods of time,” I suspect that the same would be true for those herbs containing similar compounds, such as barberry, goldthread, oregon grape, and yellowroot. Therefore, I lowered their safety ratings to 1+ (Barney, 1996).
2–4 g tincture (MAD); 1.5–3 tsp tincture 3 ×/day (APA); 2–3 g fl extract (MAD); 20–40 drops 1:10 bark tincture (PHR; PH2); 2–4 ml liquid bark (PNC); 1–2 tbsp fresh bark/day (PED); 2 g bark/250 ml water (PHR; PH2); 1.5–3 g dry bark/day (PED); 0.5–1 g powdered bark (PNC); 1 tsp (= 2.1 g) root bark in hot tea (MAD); 0.5 tsp powdered root bark/cup/1 ×/day; 2 g dry root:10 ml alcohol:10 ml water (PED); 2 tsp (5 g) berries in cold tea (MAD); 1–2 tsp fruit/150 ml water (PHR).
Unknown ID
EO, estragole
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Basil) — Class 2b, 2c, 2d. Not recommended for infants or over a long period (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper thera-peutic dosages” (PH2) But one should forgo use of basil oil, however, until “the final determinations of the drug’s carcinogenic potential” (PH2). Commission E reports the herb contains up to 0.5% of EO, which contains up to 85% of estragole. Estragole is mutagenic following metabolic activa-tion, and there is evidence from animal experiments that it may be carcinogenic. The herb and EO should not be used during pregnancy and lactation or for prolonged periods. There is no objection to the use of the herb as an admixture in levels up to 5% (AEH).
1–2 tsp herb/cup water 2–3 ×/day; 0.5–1 tsp tincture up to 3 ×/day (APA); 5 g leaf/200 cc water for gas (JFM); 20 g leaf/300 cc water for aphtha (JFM); 15 g fresh plant/l water, one cup before retiring (TRA).
bassia scoparia
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). While promoted as a health food, the oxalate content could pose a threat. Various abstracts refer to toxicosis in grazing animals.
3–15 g dry fruit (FAY); 30–60 g leaf for dyspepsia (FAY).
myricitrin, tannins, phenols, triterpenes sapogenins, myricadiol
Class 1 (AHP). None known (PHR). Not covered (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Bayberry is carcinogenic to rats (CAN). “Canadian regulations do not allow bayberry as a non-medicinal ingredient for oral use products” (Michols, 1995). Large doses may cause mineralcorticoid side effects (high blood pressure, sodium retention, water retention). Use of this herb can deplete potassium in the body, leading to high blood pressure and edema. Should not be used by persons with high blood pressure, edema, kidney disease, congestive heart failure, gastrointestinal conditions, and/or sodium/potassium imbalance without first consulting a doctor. With reported carcinogenic and mineral corticoid activity, bayberry should be avoided during pregnancy and lactation (CAN). Contains myricitrin, an antibiotic that promotes sweating, which can reduce fever. Stimulates the flow of bile. Used to alleviate fever and diarrhea. May cause nausea and vomiting in large doses. Bayberry contains a high proportion of tannins and should not be used if there is a history of cancer. (Note, it is tannins that are also being promoted for cancer prevention in teas; make up our minds.) Some laboratory studies have shown tannins may promote cancer (TMA, 1996). Tannins and phenols from bark reported carcinogenic in rats when injected; but phenol and tannins orally have reported “anti-tumor promoting activity” (PNC). Wax irritating, reportedly carcinogenic (FAD). Triterpenes sapogenins may have purgative stimulus (PED); flavonoids antibacterial (PED). Myricadiol with mineral corticoid activity; myricitrin bactericidal, choleretic, protisticidal, and spermicidal (CAN; PNC).
APA cautions: do not take (APA). 0.6–2 g powdered bark by infusion or decoction, 3 ×/day (CAN); 20–30 grains powdered bark (FEL); 1–4 g powdered bark (PNC); 1.5–3 g dry bark(PED); 2 g dry bark:10 ml alcohol/10 ml water (PED); 1–3 tbsp fresh bark (PED); 2–4 ml liquid bark extract (PNC); 0.6–2 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 fl oz leaf or bark (FEL); 405–475 mg capsules (PH2).
belamcanda chinensis
belamcandin, iridin
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Contraindicated in pregnancy; contains toxic iridoids belamcandin and iridin. Root for use only under medical supervision.
2.5–9 g root in decoction (FAY); root made into poultice (FAY).
belamcanda chinensis (l.) dc.
bellis perennis
bellis perennis l.
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (English Daisy) — Not covered (AHP; KOM).
2 tsp herb/2 cups water; steep 20 minutes, take 2–4 cups/day (PH2).
berberis aristata
berberis vulgaris
bergenia crassifolia
“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (dosage not given) (PH2). Contraindicated in lactating and pregnant women, and children under 12 years. High tannin content could cause adverse effects in large doses (PH2).
(dosage not given)
bertholletia excelsa
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). As with peanut and soybean, some people are dangerously allergic to Brazilnut. Consumer Reports (November 1997) is quite conservative in pointing out the hazards of selenium, they say 1000 µg or more per day can cause loss of fingernails and hair; very high doses can cause diarrhea, fatigue, nausea, and even nerve damage. But it certainly can’t hurt to try getting plenty of selenium from the diet.
Three average nuts/day.
beta vulgaris
beta vulgaris l.
“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Overdoses might cause hypocalcemia, kidney damage, and oxalate-toxicity (PH2).
Food farmacy (JAD); 10 g powdered root after meals for 14 days, reducing to 5 g/day for 3 months (PH2).
betula lenta
Methyl salicylate
Class 1 (AHP). Contraindications reported as edema due to cardiac or renal insufficiency (AEH). None reported (PIP). Warning: EO is toxic and easily absorbed through the skin (FAD). Methyl salicylate, the chemical behind the aroma, with antiinflammatory and pain-killing activities, has recently been shown to enable plants to communicate with each other.
1–2 tbsp chopped leaf/cup water several ×/day (APA); 2–3 g herb several ×/day (PIP); 12 g herb/day (SHT).
betula papyrifera
betula pumila
betula spp.
Class 1 (AHP). Contraindications reported as edema due to cardiac or renal insufficiency (AEH). Not for use in edema in patients with cardiac or nephrotic problems. (PH2). None reported (PIP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Warning: EO toxic; easily absorbed through the skin (FAD).
1–2 tbsp chopped leaf/cup water, several ×/day (APA); 2–3 g several ×/day (KOM; PIP); 12 g/day (SHT).
bidens pilosa
bidens tripartita
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
bixa orellana
Not covered (AHP; PH2). Seeds contain a toxic alkaloid (JFM). Ingesting the tea for diabetes mellitus, may be contraindicated since trans-bixin is hyperglycemic. Toxicity, if real, is “low grade,” especially in well-nourished exper-imental animals. Toxicity commences in dogs given 60 mg/kg trans-bixin (DAD). Ethanolic seed
For diuretic activity, boil 9 seed pods in 3 cups of water for 10 minutes; drink 1 cup before each meal (AAB); 10 g powdered seed/40 ml oil for topical pastes (TRA); 3 leaf/0.5 l water + red paste = female aphrodisiac (JFM).
deoxyacteine, tannins, gallic acid, pseudotannins, isoferulic acid, salicylates, Triterpenes, Formononetin, Cimicifugin
Class 2b, 2c (AHP). No contraindications/drug interactions noted (KOM). I got a challenging letter from German parties with an economic interest in cohosh, asking where I got the cautionary remarks from in my 1985 CRC book. They must really be irritated by what follows: Commission E reports occasional gastric complaints. Not to be used for more than 6 months (AEH). With prolonged use, may irritate the uterus, cause dizziness, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, headaches, joint pains, and lowered heart rate. Can contribute to abnormal blood clotting and liver problems. Can encourage breast tumors. Should not be used by anyone with any type of heart disease or by anyone advised not to take oral contraceptives. “Women taking estrogen therapy should consult a physician before using black cohosh” (SKY). Can cause premature labor. Because of insufficient data, use during pregnancy and lactation is not advised. Should be used only under medical supervision (TMA, 1996). High doses may cause diaphoresis, dizziness, nausea, reduced pulse rate, visual disturbances, and vomiting (CAN). Because of uterine estrogen receptor binding in vitro, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. What they say about black cohosh should be templated and said for every herb, “It has been recommended that black cohosh should only be used in therapeutic doses, and that high doses are potentially dangerous” (CAN). “Canadian regulations do not allow black cohosh as a non-medicinal ingredient for oral use products” (Michols, 1995). Pedersen is not much kinder, “Such constituents as tannins, gallic acid, and pseudotannins, including isoferulic acid, and the salicylates, are irritants to the skin, lungs, and kidneys. The drastic action of the irritant principles in black cohosh are not lethal, but overdoses are characterized by nausea and headache” (PED). Schulz et al. (1998) are nicer to this herb, sold in Germany and America, than the Anglos quoted above. In five studies using doses equivalent to 40 mg/day crude herb, there are no case reports of toxic effects from the herb, and there appears to be no specific toxicity associated with any of its known constituents. Two of the five showed mild side effects (dizziness, GI distress, headache, and weight gain). No other contraindications are known. The duration of use should not exceed 3 months (SHT). Cohosh extract augmented the activity of tamoxiphen (MAB).
40–200 mg/day (APA); 0.5 tsp powdered root/cup water, up to 1 cup/day (APA); 1 g powdered root 3 ×/day (HHB); 0.3–2 g powdered root (PNC); 0.5–1 g dry root 3–4 ×/day (MAB); 1.5–3 g dry root (PED); 300–2000 mg dry root (SF); 2 g dry root:10 ml alcohol/10 mg water (PED); 1–3 tbsp fresh root (PED); 0.3–2 g rhizome 3 ×/day (CAN; SKY); 0.3–2 ml liquid root extract (PNC); 2–4 ml root tincture; 40 mg herb in 40–60% ethanol (SF); up to 1 tsp tincture/day (APA); 2–4 ml tincture (1:10 in 60% alcohol) (CAN); 3.5–7 ml tincture (1:5); 6–12 ml tincture (1:10) (MAB); 0.3–2.0 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 90% alcohol) (CAN); 1.5–3 ml fluid extract (1:2) (MAB); 1 (540 mg) capsule 3 ×/day (NH); 40 mg StX (1 mg deoxyacteine)/day (SKY). | doses equivalent to 40 mg/day crude herb. The duration of use should not exceed 3 months (SHT).
Class 2d. Juglone is mutagenic. External carcinogenic effects noted after chronic use of Juglans regia, which contains juglone (AHP). Should not be used for more than a few weeks at a time (WAM). Antiseptic; contains tannins and iodine. No side effects reported (TMA, 1996). Our second- best source of dietary serotonin, quickly broken down in the gut (where there are serotonin receptors). The combination of tannin, with all its pesticidal activities and juglone, may be pretty potent.
10–20 drops fluid extract/day (APA); 495 mg hull capsules 3 ×/day (APA); 2–3 tsp fresh fruit rind (PED); 1–1.5 g dry fruit rind (PED); 1 g dry fruit, 5 ml alcohol/5 ml water (PED).
bletilla striata
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Not for use in chronic lung ailments. Large or frequent dosage can become toxic. Take root only with medical supervision (FAY).
3–9(–16) g dry root (FAY); 5–10 g powdered root in decoction (FAY).
blighia sapida
cyclopropanoid amino acids, hypoglycin A, hypoglycin B
Used as a fish poison. Contains the potentially useful but toxic hypoglycemic agents, cyclopropanoid amino acids, hypoglycin A, and hypoglycin B. Akee poisoning has been reported to be fatal in 2 hours. The bitter reddish raphe should be picked out as the fruit opens on the tree. Damaged, unripe, or fallen fruits should not be eaten. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, a quiescent period with drowsiness and sleep, followed 3 or 4 hours later with intense vomiting, and lastly, convulsions, coma, and death.
Unknown ID
Unidentified hemolytic principle, Betulinic acid
AHP Class 2b, 2d (JAD). None known (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Not for patients with colitis, diarrhea, or dysentery (PH2). Should be avoided during pregnancy and lactation (CAN). Large doses may induce diarrhea, gripping pain, nausea, and vomiting (CAN; PH2). Unidentified hemolytic principle. Large doses are emetic and laxative. Betulinic acid is a promising antimelanomic compound. Europeans report success in treating glomerulnephrosis. Decoctions show dose-dependent antiedemic, antiinflammatory, antileukotriene, and antiprostaglandin activity; induced exocytosis.
0.5–1 tsp chopped leaf one-half hour before meals (APA); 10–25 grains powdered leaf (FEL); 1–2 tsp (1.5-3 g) leaf in hot or cold tea (MAD); 1–2 g, perhaps in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1 tsp (= 0.9 g) or 0.5–1 g/cup tea, 1/2 cup before each meal (PH2); 1–2 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 25% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–3 ml liquid extract (1:5 in 45% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–15 drops tincture with sugar for seasickness (MAD); 0.5–1.5 ml liquid herb extract (PNC).
borago officinalis
pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), tannins, mucilage, GLA
Class 2a, 2b, 2c, 2d. Long-term use is not recommended (AHP). Not approved (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports borage contains hepatotoxic and carcinogenic pyrrolizidine alkaloids (AEH). “Effective July 1996, the AHP Board of Trustees recommends that all products with botanical ingredient(s) which contain toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids, including Borago officinalis, display the following cautionary statement on the label: For external use only. Do not apply to broken or abraded skin. Do not use when nursing.” (AHP). Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) have genotoxic, carcinogenic, and hepatotoxic activity (CAN). Because of the PAs, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Animal studies document placental transfer and secretion into breast milk of unsaturated PAs (CAN). Swiss researchers report at least seven PAs from the herb, at levels above those permitted in Germany (>1 ppm). Seeds reportedly contain even higher quantities of alkaloids (De Smet et al., 1993).
2–4 ml liquid leaf extract (APA; PNC); 1 (300 mg) softgel containing 24% GLA (APA); 2 (5 ml) spoonfuls dry herb/cup water 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–4 ml tincture 3 ×/day (CAN); 10 g leaf and/or flower/liter water for bronchosis and fever (JFM).
boswellia
Boswellic acids, 5-Boswellic-acid
This Johnny-come-lately hasn’t been among us occidentals long enough to accumulate much negative or positive folklore. “Rare side effects may include diarrhea, nausea, and skin rash. Any inflammatory joint condition should be closely monitored by a nutritionally oriented physician” (SKY).
3 (250 mg) capsules boswellin/day (APA); 2–3 g resin (KAP); 1–1.5 ml oil (KAP); 56–112 ml bark decoction (KAP); 150 mg 3 ×/day (SKY); StX 37.5–65% boswellic acid (SKY).
boswellia sacra
boswellia serrata
bowiea volubilis
Human fatalities reported (VAG); African medicine men have killed patients with overdoses. Vomiting and purgation were followed by death in 3 hours to 3 days. But death can occasionally occur in minutes (CRC). Internal use may cause fatality (ZUL). One-half ounce bulb fatal to sheep (WBB). Tuber 30 times digitalis, flower 60 times, so don’t eat this flower.
2 g flower = 1 g pure digitoxin. MLD bulb alkaloid 0.28 ppm gastric intubation in cats (WBB).
brassica juncea, brassica nigra, sinapis alba
brassica napus var. napus
erucic acid, glucosinolate, isothiocyanate, indole-3-carbinol
Not covered (AHP). Health hazards not known with therapeutic dosages of the oil which is low in erucic acid (PH2) (but PH2 does not specify the oil dosage). Ingested over a long period, oil considered cardiotoxic (PH2). Don’t overdo it. In huge quantities, glucosinolate/isothiocyanate containing crucifers might upset the thyroid. And in huge doses, hard to get dietarily, indole-3-carbinol might stimulate breast cancer rather than prevent it, because it does so at levels reasonably attainable through dietary consumption of crucifers (Brassicaceae).
PH2 does not specify the oil dosage.
brassica nigra
isothiocyanates, mustard oil
Class 1 (internal; ingestion of too much can be irritating); Class 2b (external; duration not to exceed 2 weeks; not for children under 6 years. Severe burns may occur with long-term topical use) (AHP). Contraindications: children younger than 6 years; renal disease (mustard oil is absorbed through the skin). Even external poultice should be limited to 5–10 minutes pediatrically, 10–15 minutes for adults, less for sensitive patients (KOM). 15–30 minutes plaster can cause severe burns (AHP). Millspaugh has said, “unground seeds ... proved dangerous, as they are liable to become impacted in the bowel and set up a fatal inflammation” (CEB). Adverse effects: skin and nervous damage (prolonged use). Should not be used for more than 2 weeks (AEH). Avoid taking with ammonia-containing products because ammonia with mustard oil yields inactive thiosinamine (PH2). Contraindicated in GI ulcers and nephrosis (PHR). Overdoses internally cause GI distress (PHR). Hyperthyroidism with goiter traced to the use of the isothiocyanates in mustard (APA). Delaneyite nitpickologists will doubtless clamber to put the same goitrogenic warning on all members of the mustard family as well as papaya, caper, and nasturtium.
brassica oleracea var. botrytis
brassica oleracea var. botrytis l.
anthocyanins, glucosinolate, isothiocyanate, indole-3-carbinol
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Don’t overdo it. In huge quantities, glucosinolate/isothiocyanate-containing crucifers might upset the thyroid. And in huge doses, hard to get dietarily, indole-3-carbinol might stimulate breast cancer rather than prevent it because it does so at levels reasonably attainable through dietary consumption of crucifers (Brassicaceae).
Food farmacy. Eat some almost every day but don’t overdo it.
brassica oleracea var. capitata
Not covered (AHP; KOM).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). In huge quantities, glucosinolate/isothiocyanate containing crucifers might upset the thyroid. And in huge doses, hard to get dietarily, indole-3-carbinol, might stimulate breast cancer rather than prevent it because it does so at levels reasonably attainable through dietary consumption of crucifers (Brassicaceae).
Food farmacy; eat some almost every day, but don’t overdo it. Recommended raw as slaw, fermented as kraut, or boiled redneck fashion. I use it as the broth for all my vegetarian soups (JAD). A daily liter of cabbage juice for at least 3 weeks but not more than 6 weeks (PH2). One tsp juice before each meal for gastralgia and acid stomach (PH2). 500 mg tablets (PH2).
brassica oleracea var. gemmifera
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). In huge quantities, glucosinolate/isothiocyanate-containing crucifers might upset the thyroid. And in huge doses, hard to get dietarily, indole-3-carbinol might stimulate breast cancer rather than prevent it, because it does so at levels reasonably attainable through dietary consumption of crucifers (Brassicaceae).
Food farmacy; eat some almost every day but don’t overdo it.
brassica oleracea var. italica
brassica oleracea var. viridis
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Kale) — Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). In huge quantities, glucosinolate/isothiocyanate-containing crucifers might upset the thyroid. And in huge doses, hard to get dietarily, indole-3-carbinol might stimulate breast cancer rather than prevent it because it does so at levels reasonably attainable through dietary consumption of crucifers (Brassicaceae). If broccoli is the master antioxidant, kale is a master contender, excelling in many ways. According to JNU, kale has seven times more beta carotene than broccoli, ~11 times more lutein, more vitamin K (one-half cup cooked kale providing 600% of the daily value), and the highest ORAC score of any veggie.
Food farmacy; eat some almost every day but don’t overdo it.
brassica rapa ssp. campestris
indole-3-carbinol, glucosinolate, isothiocyanate
Not covered (AHP; KOM). None at proper doses (PH2). Rapeseed oil ingested in overdose can be cardiotoxic. And in huge doses, hard to get dietarily, indole-3-carbinol might stimulate breast cancer rather than prevent it because it does so at levels reasonably attainable through dietary consumption of crucifers (Brassicaceae). Don’t overdo it. In huge quantities, glucosinolate/isothiocyanate-containing crucifers might upset the thyroid. Hyperthyroidism with goiter traced “to the use of the isothiocyanates in mustard” (APA). Delaneyite nitpickological gene jocks will doubtless clamor to put the same goitrogenic warning on all members of the mustard family as well as papaya, caper, and nasturtium, and all genistein-containing legumes. Our genes coevolved with the genistein and glucosinolates for millions of years!
Food farmacy as far as I am concerned.
Indole-3-carbinol, Glucosinolate/isothiocyanate
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). In huge quantities, glucosinolate/isothiocyanate containing crucifers might upset the thyroid. And in huge doses, hard to get dietarily, indole-3-carbinol might stimulate breast cancer rather than prevent it, because it does so at levels reasonably attainable through dietary consumption of crucifers (Brassicaceae).
Food farmacy; eat some almost every day, but don’t overdo it.
broussonetia papyrifera
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2).
brugmansia aurea
brugmansia x candida
“Said to induce insensibility, hallucinations, and madness” (CRC).
brunfelsia grandiflora
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (not designated)” (PH2, speaking of B. hopeana). Overdoses may cause death, with anxiety, convulsions, increased cardiac and pulmonary activity, muscle tremors, salivation, spasms, and vomiting (PH2, speaking of B. hopeana). Hallucination accompanied by serious side effects (e.g., chills, cold sweats, heavy tongue, itchiness, nausea, stomachache, temporary insanity, tingling, and vomiting) (DAV). I have experienced alternating chills and fever, numbness, heavy feet, torpor myself.
brunfelsia uniflora
Abortifacient, Alterative, Anesthetic, Antiedemic, Antiinflammatory, Antipyretic, Antirheumatic, Antisyphilitic, Diaphoretic, Diuretic, Emetic, Emmenagogue, Hypertensive, Laxative, Lymphotonic, Narcotic, Poison
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Overdoses may cause death, with anxiety, convulsions, increased cardiac and pulmonary activity, muscle tremors, salivation, spasms, and vomiting (PH2). Excessive doses are poisonous, causing salivation, vertigo, general anesthesia, partial facial paralysis, swollen tongue, and turbid vision. Even in small doses manacine induces strong muscular tremors and epileptiform cramps, hypothermia, and death from respiratory paralysis in experimental animals (CRC).
bryonia alba
bryonia dioica
cucurbitacins
Not covered (AHP). Not approved (KOM). Commission E reports the root is a drastic laxative and emetic, while other therapeutic uses are not adequately documented. Contains toxic cucurbitacins (AEH). May cause abortion, anuria, blisters, colic, collapse, convulsions, cramps, death, dermatosis, diarrhea, dizziness, emesis, hematochezia, nephrosis, neurosis, paralysis, rash, and/or vomiting (KOM; PH2); 40 berries could kill an adult (PH2). One death attributed to 30 g (ca. 1 oz) root (PH2).
bryophyllum pinnatum
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Air Plant) — Do not use more than 15 days in a row. Not for pregnant, puerperal, or lactating mothers or small children (TRA).
Dosages (Air Plant) — 10 g leaf applied to forehead for headache (TRA).
bupleurum
Saikosaponin A, Saikosaponin D, saikosaponins, Polysaccharide fraction BR2
Class 1 (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). I suspect that this herb houses furanocourmarins for which the usual photosensitivity caveats apply. Patients may experience some flatulence, laxation, and sedation (KEB); large doses may decrease appetite and cause flatulence and abdominal distension. Allergic reactions reported in three cases (intramuscular injections) (WHO). One combination formula containing Bupleurum has been associated with interstitial pneumonitis in more than 15 patients (MAB). Because large doses may sedate, WHO cautions against operating motor vehicles or hazardous machinery. Alcohol, as well as other sedatives and CNS-depressants, may synergize the Bupleurum effects.
1–2 tsp (2–5 g)/day (SHB); 3–9 g/day (WHO); 3–12 g root/day (AKT); 1–4 g root powder (AKT); 1–2 tsp fresh root (PED); 0.5–1 g dry root (PED); 3–12 g/day dry root (MAB); 1 g dry root:5 ml alcohol/5 ml water (PED); 1.5–6 g dry root/day or 3–12 ml fluid extract (1:2) (KEB); 4–8 ml fluid extract (1:2) (MAB).
bupleurum chinense or bupleurum falcatum
buxus sempervirens
Class 3 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Leaves have caused fatalities in grazing animals. Toxic symptoms include collapse, convulsions, cramps, dermatosis, diarrhea, nausea, paralysis, shakes, vertigo, vomiting, and possibly death due to asphyxiation (CRC; PH2). LD in dogs = 100 g alkaloids/kg.
caesalpinia bonduc
Fatty acid triglycerides, octadeca-4-enoic- acid, octadeca-2,4-dienoic- acid, palmitic- acid, stearic- acid
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
Up to 1 g mixed with pepper as tonic (HHB).
cajanus cajan
Pods and pulses are food farmacy, some of the best! (JAD); 20–40 g leaf boiled in water for dermatosis, sore, swelling, and wound (JFM).
caladium bicolor (aiton) vent.
“Contains irritant crystals of calcium oxalate and can cause dermatosis” (CRC).
Food farmacy??? Cooked leaves and tuber eaten (Tanaka).
calamintha nepeta
Not covered (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
calea zacatechichi
Antiatherogenic (f; CRC; JFM), Antipyretic (f; CRC), Aperitif (f; CRC), Astringent (f; CRC), Bitter (1; JFM), CNS Depressant (1; JFM), Emetic (f; CRC), Hallucinogen (f; CRC), Laxative (1; CRC; JFM), Stomachic (f; CRC; JFM), Tranquilizer (f; JFM)
“Listed as a narcotic hallucinogen (mostly visual)” (CRC).
calendula officinalis
Calendula triterpenes, Triterpenoids, Flavonoids, Faradiol-3-myristic-acid-ester, Faradiol-3-palmitic-acid-ester, Unesterified faradiol, Calenduloside-B
Class 1, Class 2b (AHP; CAN). I think it safer than coffee, discounting a report of anaphylactic shock in one Russian who gargled with the infusion (it’s kin to ragweed) (LRNP, August 1992). No known side effects or contraindications (KOM; SKY). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). CAN caution that due to its reputed affect on the menstrual cycle, and being a uterine stimulant in vitro, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN).
5–40 drops tincture 3 ×/day; 1–5 g herb/cup tea, 3 ×/daily (SF); 1–4 g flower as tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 tsp flower/cup water (APA); 5 g flower in 1 liter milk for stomach cancer (JFM); 0.5–1.0 ml liquid flower extract (1:1 in 40% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.3–1.2 ml flower tincture (1:5 in 90% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–4 ml liquid floral extract (PNC); 0.3–1.2 ml floral tincture (PNC); ointments w/ 2–5 g herb/100 g (PIP).
calliandra grandiflora
“Classed as a narcotic hypnotic” (CRC).
callicarpa americana
calluna vulgaris
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). | “Contains irritant crystals of calcium oxalate and can cause dermatosis” (CRC).
1.5 g/cup tea (HHB); 3 cups/day (PH2); 1–2 tsp liquid extract (PH2). | Food farmacy??? Cooked leaves and tuber eaten (Tanaka).
calluna vulgaris (l.) hull.
calotropis gigantea
Calotropine
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Giant Milkweed) — Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Dangerous plant. Very high doses may cause death, following bradycardia, convulsion, diarrhea, and vomiting (PH2). Perkins and Payne note convulsions, diarrhea, vomiting, slowed but stronger heartbeat, labored respiration, increased blood pressure, and possible death (CRC). Traditional use in India may cause severe bullous dermatosis, leading occasionally to hypertropic scars. Calotropine effective in vitro against epidermoid tissue cultures of the rhinopharynx (PH2).
200–600 mg bark as a diaphoretic and expectorant, 2–4 g as emetic (HHB; PHR).
calotropis procera
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Dangerous
200–600 mg bark as a diaphoretic and expectorant, 2–4 g as emetic (HHB; PHR).
caltha palustris
helleborein, jervine, veratrine
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage, strange, it is toxic! JAD). Warning: Any plant part may irritate and/or blister skin or mucous membranes. Sniffing bruised stems induces sneezing. Poisonings have resulted from using raw leaves in salads or raw flower buds as caper substitutes. Do not confuse with toxic hellebores (FA2). I once doubted the EFS reports of helleborein, jervine, and veratrine but did enter them in FNF. These are sometimes found in monocots such as Veratrum, which often grow in the same swamp or bog environment (EFS). But toxic hellebores are from the same buttercup family. Treat all these with extreme caution.
“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
calystegia sepium
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Overdose of the laxative might cause colic, cramping, etc. (JAD; PH2).
1–2 tsp/cup root tea (PH2).
camellia sinensis
polphenols (OPCs, tannins), xanthines (caffeine), [+]-catechin (major COX-2 Inhibitor), pycnogenols, delta-cadinene, beta-caryophyllene, indole, fluoride (130–160 ppm)
Class 2d. Fermented black tea not recommended for excess or long-term use (AHP). In excess can cause GI distress and nervous irritability (due to caffeine) (PNC). Caffeine syndrome in overindulgence, as with coffee, etc. (SKY). All things in moderation. One woman who consumed the equivalent of 65 g tea leaves/day for 5 years exhibited liver dysfunction. Ascites and splenomegaly resolved after tea was discontinued (SHT). Pedersen, who does not cover conventional tea, says that peppermint leaf contains much astringent tannin, which can damage the liver and intestine with prolonged use (Pedersen, 1998). Since the more widely used tea (Camellia sinensis) often contains twice as much tannin as peppermint, this recommendation should be doubly pertinent under tea, or maybe we should call these tannins by the more attractive names “OPCs, polyphenols, and pycnogenols” and declare them useful antioxidant good guys instead of hepatotoxic bad guys (JAD). Regarding caffeine, “Pregnant women should under no circumstances exceed a dosage of 300 mg/day (5 cups of tea spread out over the course of a day). Infants whose nursing mothers consume beverage containing caffeine could suffer from sleep disorders” (APA).
1–2 tsp dry leaf/cup water 1–3 ×/day (APA); 50–100 mg green tea polyphenols (APA); 100–200 mg StX (50% polyphenols) (APA); three 333-mg green tea capsules, each containing 50 mg polyphenols/day (APA).
Unknown ID
vitamin C
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Most FNF entries above based on the fact that camu-camu is a very rich edible source of vitamin C.
Food farmacy, 3–4 fruits providing 300–400 mg vitamin C (JAD).
canarium vulgare
Not covered (AHP; HHB; KOM). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). EO reported to cause GI and kidney complaints and hemorrhagic erosion (PH2).
Topical ointments using 25% resin are used (PH2).
canavalia ensiformis
5–10 g leaf poulticed onto burn (TRA).
Alkaloids, Saponins
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Overdose might induce “European cholera,” diuresis, and shock (PH2). MPI gives some interesting data. Alkaloids from the plant show in vitro and in vivo anticholinesterase activities, perhaps explaining the depurative and ophthalmic activity (MPI). C. speciosus was found to be 2.5 times more ecbolic than Gloriosa superba, enough to make me advise pregnant women to avoid both. Saponins from the herb caused proliferation of uterine and vaginal tissues similar to those produced by stilbestrol (MPI). These saponins also had antiarthritic and antiinflammatory activities.
Food farmacy; rhizome edible after cooking (WOI).
cannabis sativa
THC, dronabinol, cannabidiol, cannabigerol, olivetol, flavonoids, 3,5,4'-trihydroxybibenzyl-methyl-ether, Caryophyllene
“Smoking cannabis causes bronchosis and can induce squamous metaplasia and bronchial tumors.” A cannabis cigarette generates ca. five times more carboxyhemoglobin than a tobacco cigarette. Cannabis is fetotoxic. Exposure to cannabis in utero may cause a 10-fold increase in childhood leukemia risk. It can trigger acute psychotic reactions in schizophrenia, and increases risk of new schizophrenia 6-fold. Cannabis smoking impairs learning and short-term memory, persisting for perhaps several weeks. Cannabis has been implicated in many road accidents and some air and rail accidents (Doyle and Spencer, 1995). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Smoking quickly leads to euphoria with exaggerated sensuality, with alterations in space and time perception, and acoustical, sensory, and visual hallucinations, lasting 2–3 hours in higher doses. Although rarely reported, there are occasional acute poisonings with symptoms including cardiop-athy, hacking cough, lacrimation, nausea, numbness, and vomiting. Chronic abuse may lead to apathy, bronchosis, impotence, laryngitis, and psychic decline. Instances of death “are very rare” (PHR). Smoking suppresses the luteinizing hormone in women.
1–2 g ganja (KAP); 2–4 g (pediatric) 1–5–20 g (adult) powdered herb (KAP); 0.5 g resin (KAP); 0.1 g (PHR); 1 joint contains 0.5–1 g drug with at least 5–10 mg THC; 2.5, 5 or 10 mg dronabinol, 1–2 ×/day, as aperitif as antiemetic in chemotherapuetic (PH2).
capparis spinosa
Stachydrine
Not covered (AHP, KOM; PHR; PH2). Isothiocyanates in overdose can cause problems.
Food farmacy (JAD). Brandy, honey, or wine decoctions for liver ailments (JLH).
capparis tomentosa
stachydrine
In view of reported poisonings, indiscriminate use is discouraged (VVG); human fatalities reported following root ingestion. Contains stachydrine (ZUL).
capsella bursa-pastoris
Oxalates, Isothiocyanates, Fumaric acid
Class 2b. Emmenagogue and uterotonic. Because of oxalates, patients with kidney stones and perhaps those with endometriosis should avoid; large doses of extract may cause heart palpitations (AHP). Commission E reports none known (KOM; PHR). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). CAN reports isothiocyanates cause irritation. Reported to be abortifacient and to affect menstrual cycle, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. May interfere with blood pressure, cardiac, sedative, and thyroid medications. Toxic doses induce difficult respirations (dyspnea), enlargement of pupils, paralysis of hind limbs, sedation, and death by respiratory paralysis. Isothiocyanates may induce goiter (CAN). Seeds may blister skin (FAD). Parenteral application only (KOM). LD50 = 1500 mg/kg ipr mus (CAN). Antitumor activity due to ubiquitous fumaric acid (PNC).
1 tsp herb/cup water 2–4 ×/day (APA); 10–15 g herb/day (KOM; PH2); 3–5 g herb:0.75 cup water for topical tea (KOM); 1–4 g dry herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–4 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN; PNC); 5–8 g fluid herb extract (KOM; PIP); 1 tbsp herb extract 2–3 ×/day (APA); 20–30 drops herb tincture 2–3 ×/day (APA); 3–5 g/150 ml water (PIP); 10–15 g crude drug (SHT).
capsicum
capsaicin, capsaicinoids
Class 2d. Contraindicated on broken skin or near eyes (AHP). Commission E reports contraindications: damaged skin, hyper- sensitivity; adverse effects: irritant properties, rarely allergic reactions. Not to be used for more than 2 days, with 14-day lapse before reapplying (this is not often followed in this country) (AEH). The Herbal PDR suggests the same. Not for children under 2 years (WAM). CAN reports capsai- cinoids to be irritant, “The toxicity of the capsaicinoids has reportedly not been ascribed to any one specific action but may be due to their causing respiratory failure, bradycardia, and hypoten- sion.” Chronic administration of capsicum extract (0.5 µg capsaicin/kg body weight; that would be 50 µg (micrograms) for this 100-kilo rat) to hamsters has been reported toxic (CAN). The oral LD50 in rats is 190 mg/kg (CAN). The oral LD50 97–294 in mice is such that led TAD to calculate that for me, a 220-lb (100 kg) rat, I’d need to ingest some 135 to 415 ounces of hot pepper. No way (TAD). Capsicum may interfere with blood pressure medicines and MAOIs (CAN). Paprika and/or capsicum may speed other medications (reading that, I went and tried a mixture of grapefruit juice with black pepper and Tabasco, three well known potentiators of medications). Interesting. Spicy, but good. Sure beats taking my less-spicy herb (or synthetics for those more unfortunate than I). Digestive properties of capsaicin may be attributed to an enhancement of digestive enzyme activities or to indirect effects on vascular endothelia, smooth muscles, and mast cells, resulting in increase of vascular permeability and of mucosal blood flow. Antigens have been associated with anaphylaxis and rhinoconjunctivitis (PH2). Hot spices can promote antigen transfer through epi- thelia and thereby augment sensitization or allergic reactions. Unfortunately, it may also speed up hepatic metabolism of many drugs, effectively rendering them weaker. Many of my correspondents find the capsaicin cure worse than their aching ailment. Fleming et al. (1998) have some heavy duty toxicity info: toxic dosages, possibly leading to life-threatening hypothermia by affecting the thermoreceptors. Excessive consumption may cause gastroenterosis, hepatic or renal damage (CAN), or ulcers (SKY). Prolonged consumption of high doses can cause chronic gastrosis, kidney and liver damage, and neurotoxicity (PHR). Prolonged exposure may deaden the sensitivity to any pain (PED). “Prolonged exposure to mucosa will make the mucosa insensitive to industrial pollu- tion” (PED). I don’t know whether that’s supposed to be a plus or a minus (JAD).
0.25–0.5 tsp spice/cup water after meals (APA); 0.25–0.5 dropper tincture (APA); 0.3–1.0 ml fruit tincture (CAN; PNC; SKY); 0.05–0.15 strong fruit tincture (PNC); 1/2 cup fresh fruit (PED); 30–120 mg fruit 3 ×/day (CAN); 100–300 mg dry fruit (PED); 0.5–1 tsp dry fruit/cup water (SF); 200 mg dry fruit:1 ml alcohol/1 ml water (PED); 30–120 mg powdered cayenne (PNC); 2–3 (450 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (NH); 1 StX 450 mg capsule 3 ×/day (NH); 0.6–2 mg capsicum oleoresin (CAN; PNC); topical maximum strength 2.5% (CAN). Topical StX should contain, methinks 0.0225–0.075% capsaicin, but I see reports of 0.25–0.75% capsaicin (SF). Some people work with stronger ointments than mine (0.025–0.075% capsaicin); Steve Foster gives levels 10 times higher, and CAN 100 times higher (for capsaicinoids). I consider these higher levels too strong, if not dangerous.
capsicum frutescens
capsicum frutescens l. spp.
0.25–0.5 tsp spice/cup water after meals (APA); 0.25–0.5 dropper tincture (APA); 0.3–1.0 ml fruit tincture (CAN; PNC; SKY); 0.05–0.15 strong fruit tincture (PNC); 1/2 cup fresh fruit (PED); 30–120 mg fruit 3 ×/day (CAN); 100–300 mg dry fruit (PED); 0.5–1 tsp dry
borneol, eucalyptol, cineole, limonene
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). No side effects or interactions reported (KOM). Patients with gallstone should consult a physician before taking (KOM). Can trigger gallstone colic (PH2). Fleming et al. give a much longer Commission E approval list than Blumenthal et al. (who list only dyspepsia in 1998, and dropped it in BGB). There’s something very repetitive about the caveats that a compiler like me is liable to notice. There are probably a dozen species like this where the Blumenthal and Fleming et al. templates are parallel to this one case. Good computer jocks can seek them out. Accentuating the negative, Rinzler notes that borneol, eucalyptol (= cineole), and limonene are irritants; limonene is a photosensitizer.
0.5–2 g powdered fruit (PNC); 0.625–1.750 g powdered seed (KAP); 15 crushed seed/half cup water up to 5 ×/day (APA); individual dose 0.5 g; daily dose 1.5 g (HHB); 1–2 g (KOM; PH2); 2–4 ml tincture (PNC); 2–4 ml liquid cardamom extract (PNC); 0.03–0.2 ml cardamom oil (PNC).
carex arenaria
carica papaya
Papain
Class 1 (AHP). None known (WAM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Admitting no risks for the leaf, Commission E disallows for lack of proof of efficacy (KOM). May interact with warfarin (PH2). There are reports of perforated esophagus following over ingestion of fruits (APA). Papain can cause severe stomach inflammation if taken internally, dermatosis externally. Allergic reactions including asthma possible (PH2). Not to be used during pregnancy (PH2). See accounts for papain in FNF and KOM. Papaya seeds can reverse sterility without affecting libido
1–2 tsp dry leaf/cup water (APA); 1–3 tsp fruit juice (APA); 1–2 tbsp fresh fruit (PED); 1.5–3 g dry fruit (PED); 2.5–5 ml elixir of papaya (PNC); 2.5–5 ml glycerin of papain (PNC); 10–50 mg papain (APA); “Papain may be effective in high doses (daily dose = 1500 mg”) (KOM).
carlina acaulis
1.5 g (HHB).
carpobrotus edulis
Antibacterial (1; VVG), Antiseptic (1; ZUL), Antiviral (1; VVG), Astringent (1; VVG), Diuretic (1; VVG), Fungicide (1; VVG), Hemostat (1; VVG), Laxative (1; ZUL), Vasoconstrictor (1; VVG)
carthamus tinctorius
N/A
N/A
carum carvi
Class 1 (AHP). None known (KOM).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). We might extend to all apiaceous oils Bisset’s comments on celeryseed oil, “The drug is contraindicated in inflammation of the kidneys,” since apiaceous EOs may increase the inflammation as a result of epithelial irritation (BIS). Overdoses for long periods can lead to kidney and/or liver damage (PHR; PH2).
1.5–6 g fruit (PIP); 1–2 tsp crushed seed/cup water 2–4 ×/day, between meals (APA); chew 1 tsp seed 3–4 ×/day (APA); 0.5–2 g powdered seed (PNC); 0.05–0.2 ml concentrated seed water (PNC); 0.5–1 tsp tincture up to 3 ×/day (APA); 3–4 ml liquid extract 3–4 ×/day (APA); 3–6 drops oil (PIP); 0.05–0.2 ml caraway oil (PNC).
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Alkyl phenols are dermal irritants. May cause poison ivy–like reactions. Fruit juice contains three anti-tumor compounds (JAF41:1012, 1993).
cassia fistula
Not covered (AHP). Interaction of anthranoid laxatives reported (AEH). Usual template caveats with anthranoids.
4–8 g fruit pulp (HHB; PH2).
castanea sativa
Class 1 (AHP). None recorded at proper dosage. Usual tannin caveats (JAD).
5 g leaf/cup tea, strained (PH2); 5 g liquid leaf extract (PH2).
catha edulis
Anorectic (1; ZUL), Antiulcer (1; PH2), Aperitif (f; ZUL), Aphrodisiac (f; PH2), Astringent (1; PH2; VAG), Cardiotonic (f; ZUL), Cardiotoxic (f; WBB), Carminative (f; ZUL), CNS-Stimulant (1; PH2; ZUL), Euphoriant (f; WBB), Hypertensive (f; ZUL), Inebriant (1; WBB), Insecticide (1; PH2), Mutagenic (f; ZUL), Mydriatic (f; ZUL), Myodepressant (1; WBB), Narcotic (f; WBB), Neurotonic (1; ZUL), Stimulant (1; WBB; ZUL), Sympathomimetic (1; PH2), Tonic (f; ZUL)
Chewing leaves can cause constipation, periodontal disease, mucosal lesions, and increased risk of esophageal cancer. Mutagenic effects reported (ZUL). Although I do not believe it, I quote WBB, “Fifty milligrams of khat has a sedative effect but 300 to 400 mg produces hyperexcitability, mydriasis, spinal convulsions, and death from respiratory paralysis” (WBB). I chewed several grams in Kenya.
catharanthus roseus
10 leaves + 10 flowers boiled into tea (JFM); make solar tea of 9 pink flowers in 1 pint water 3 hours, sip all day for cold and sore throat (AAB).
ursolic-acid
Class 2b (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Emmenagogues should be avoided in pregnancy. As a mild uterine stimulant, avoid in pregnancy (PH2; WAM). An important source of the COX-2-Inhibitor, ursolic-acid (COX).
1–2 tsp fresh herb (PED); 0.5–1 g dry herb (PED); 2–4 g dry herb (PNC); 1–2 tsp dry herb/cup water up to 3 ×/day (SKY); 2 tsp herb/cup water to 3 ×/day (APA); 10 tsp herb/liter, 2–3 cups/day (PHR; PH2); 0.5–1 tsp tincture up to 3 ×/day (APA); 5 ml tincture 3 ×/day (children with cough) (SKY).
caulophyllum thalictroides
Anagyrines, caulosaponin
Class 2b (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). CAN caution that the poi-sonous seeds will irritate the GI tract. Because it is reputed to be abortifacient and to affect the menstrual cycle, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. May interfere with angina therapy (CAN). Anagyrines may be teratogenic (PHR). Canadian regulations do not allow blue cohosh as a nonmedicinal ingredient for oral use products (Michols, 1995). The alcoholic extract was uterotonic in guinea pig; caulosaponin is oxytocic to rat uterus in vivo; even low-potency homeopathic produce follicular and endometrial changes likened to inhibition of ovulation; admin-istration of this homeopathic preparation interrupted implantation (De Smet et al., 1993).
40–200 mg/day (APA); 0.3–2 g rhizome 3 ×/day (CAN); 1/2 –1 tsp fresh root (PED); 0.25–0.5 g dry root (PED); 0.5 g dry root: 3 g alcohol/2 ml water (PED); 0.3–2 g powdered root (PNC); 0.3–2 ml liquid root extract (PNC); 0.3–2.0 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 90% alcohol) (CAN); 2–4 ml tincture (1:10 in 60% alcohol) (CAN).
ceanothus americanus
tannin
Class 1 (AHP). None known (PHR). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). The 8% tannin could explain about half of the indications.
0.05–1.5 ml liquid extract (PNC).
cedrus deodara
allohimacholol, centdarol, himachalol, himadarol, Delta-7-dehydrodomatuic-acid, delta-10-dehydroepitodomatuic-acid, 7-hydroxytodomatuic-acid
cedrus libani a. rich.
“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). EO fungitoxic at 1000 ppm (FFJ4(1):1).
ceiba pentandra
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Kapok can irritate the skin and most mucosae, especially eye, ear, and throat (UPW).
4 g bark/liter water, boil 15 min; apply topically to leg ulcers and hemorrhoids.
celastrus paniculatus
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Oriental Bittersweet) — Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2).
10–30 minims as diuretic (DEP); 5–15 minims as diaphoretic and neurotonic (DEP); 1–3 g powdered seed (KAP); 1–2 ml seed oil (KAP); 28–56 ml seed decoction ( = 1–2 oz) (KAP).
celastrus scandens
celosia argentea var. cristata
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Leaves not to be eaten by menstruating women (LMP).
4–15 g fl (FAY); 3–15 g seed in decoction (FAY).
centaurea cyanus
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1 g fl/cup (HHB); tea to be drunk several ×/day (PH2).
centaurium erythraea
Class 1, 2b (AHP; CAN). “In view of the lack of toxicity data, use of centaury during pregnancy and lactation is best avoided ... excessive use should be avoided” (CAN). Sources report contraindication of GI ulcer (AEH; PHR). None reported (PIP).
2–4 g herb as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 1 g/cup tea (HHB); 1–2 g single dose; 3–6 g/day (HHB); 6 g/day (KOM); 2–4 ml (1:1 in 25% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN, PNC); 1–2 g extract (KOM; PHR).
centella asiatica
triterpenoids, asiaticoside, Triterpenoids, Asiaticoside, Total triterpenic fraction
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). LRNP (December 1988) says that, despite claims of nonallergenicity, dermatosis has been reported in some patients taking gotu kola. Asiaticoside may be carcinogenic to the skin, following repeated applications (MB). Reading their account, I’d not be any more afraid of gotu kola than wild lettuce. Contraindicated in epilepsy and pregnancy; may photosensitize (MB). CAN cautions against dermatosis and phototoxicity. Ingestion may induce pruritus (CAN). Because it is reputed to be abortifacient and to affect the menstrual cycle, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. May interact with other blood pressure, cholesterol, and depression medications. “Excessive ingestion of hydrocotyle should be avoided” (CAN). Not allowed as nonmedicinal ingredient in oral use products in Canada. (Michols, 1995). Nausea may rarely follow extremely high doses (SKY).
0.5–1 tsp herb/cup water 2–3 ×/day (APA; MB); 0.6 g herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 tsp dry herb/cup water 2–3 ×/day (SKY); 0.5–1.5 g powdered herb (KAP); 2–4 g crude leaf/day (MB); 0.25 cup fresh leaf (PED); 6 g dry leaf (PED); 6 g dry leaf:30 ml alcohol/30 ml water (PED); 600 mg powdered leaf/day (PNC); 0.5–1 dropper 2–3 ×/day (APA); 2–4 ml (0.5–1 tsp) liquid extract (1:1) (MB); 12–20 ml infusion (KAP); 10–20 ml tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 330–680 mg 3 ×/day (WHO); 60–120 mg StX/day (to 100% triterpenoids) (MB; SKY). | Not specified for therapeutic use.
centranthus ruber
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (not given) (PH2).
ceratonia siliqua
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Carob) — Class 1 (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Infant diarrhea must be monitored by a professional to ensure proper hydration with high electrolyte fluid during acute diarrhea (SKY). Carob tannins inactivate toxins by binding with them; inhibit bacteria (SKY). By making stomach contents more viscous, fibers and sugars may interfere with acid reflux into the esophagus (SKY).
15–20 g carob mixed in applesauce (SKY).
cetraria islandica
Estrogenic activity damp- ens potential as interceptive contraceptive (ZUL). LD50 (aqueous root extract) = 7.16 ml/kg ivn rat (HH2).
28–56 ml decoction (KAP).
chamaelirium luteum
Class 2b. Emmen-agogue, GI irritant, and uterotonic (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Overdosage with saponins can cause gastric distress. Large doses may cause nausea and vomiting (CAN). Avoid during pregnancy (FAD; PH2). Canadian regulations do not allow it as an ingredient in oral use products (Michols, 1995).
2–4 ml liquid root extract (APA; PNC); 1–2 g root as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 ml liquid root extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–5 ml root tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
chamaemelum nobile
chamaesyce hirta
chamaesyce hypericifolia
“Narcotic. Juice may cause temporary blindness if introduced into the eyes” (CRC).
Sesquiterpene lactones, Coumarin, Azulenes, High molecular weight polysaccharides, Bisabolol, Flavonoids, Apigenin, Luteolin, Chamazulene, Cis-spiroether
Class 1, 2b (AHP; CAN; KOM). No contraindications, drug interactions, or side effects known (KOM). None reported (PIP). Some people advise, perhaps overadvise, that sensitive people may have an allergic reaction to this. Patients who are allergic to ragweed, however, may experience cross-reactivity with chamomile, which can produce intense itching in the mouth if the mucosa becomes highly irritated (O’Brien, 1998). CAN cautions that the sesquiterpene lactones can cause allergic reactions. They add that cross-sensitivities with other aster relatives (WAM) and celery exist. Because it is reputed to affect the menstrual cycle and to be a uterine stimulant, with excessive use, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). But SKY says no contraindications during pregnancy or lactation (SKY). Not recommended for teething babies. Because of coumarin content, may interfere with anticoagulant therapy (CAN). Highly concentrated hot tea is reportedly emetic. Keep all hot teas at a distance from the eyes (AHP).
2–4 tbsp fresh flower (PED); 3–6 g dry flower (PED); 4.5 g dry flower:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 2–8 g flower (PNC); 2–8 g flower 3 ×/day (WHO); 2–8 g flower as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–3 tsp flower/cup water; 0.5–1 tsp tincture to 3 ×/day (APA); 1–5 g several ×/day (HHB); 2–4 g 3 ×/day (MAB); 2–3 g per cup 3–4 ×/day; 10–40 drops tincture 3 ×/day (SF); 4–6 ml tincture 3 ×/day between meals (SKY); 7–14 ml tincture (1:5)/day (MAB); 1–4 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 3–6 ml/day liquid extract (1:2) (MAB); 1–4 ml, 1:1 fluid extract, 3 ×/day (WHO); 0.5–4 ml liquid floral extract (PNC); 2–3 (350 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (NH).
NDGA
Class 2d. Not for use in large amounts by persons with pre-existing kidney disease and liver conditions, such as hepatosis and cirrhosis (AHP). “Seek advice from a health care practitioner before use if you have any history of liver disease. Discontinue use if nausea, fever, fatigue, or jaundice occur (e.g., dark urine or yellow discoloration of the eyes)” (AHP). CAN cautions that the lignans may be hepatotoxic and cause dermatosis. Because of its hepatotoxic and uterine activity, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. May interfere with MAOI therapy, due to the documented amino acid constituents. However they list mostly ubiquitous amino acids; does this mean that we should attach the MAOI warning to all herbs (CAN)? Canadian regulations do not allow chaparral as a nonmedicinal ingredient for oral use products (Michols, 1995).
Do not use (APA); 1 tsp shoot/qt water for mouthwash (APA); 2–4 tbsp herb (PED); 3–6 g dry herb (PED); 4.5 g dry herb:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED).
chelidonium majus
chelidonine, chelerythrine, protopine, sanguinarine, Alpha-allocryptopine
Class 2b, 2d (AHP). None known (KOM). Not to be used by children (AHP). Canadian regulations do not allow celandine in food. Australians counsel that it “may affect glaucoma treatment.” Germans report that it takes more than 500 g celandine to cause toxic effects in cattle and horses (AHP). Side effects include dry mouth and dizziness (PNC). Overdoses can cause dizziness, hematuria, intestinal colic, stomach pain, and urinary urgency (SHT). Consumption of fresh herb may cause GI distress (AHP). Stem juice allergenic, irritant, and paralytic (FAD). “Thought to be hepatotoxic” (BRU).
0.5 g herb single dose (HHB); 3–9 g herb/day (MAB); 2–5 g crude herb (or 12–30 mg total alkaloids) (KOM; SHT); 0.5 g root (PHR); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PNC); 1–2 ml/day fluid extract (1:2) (MAB); 2–4 ml/day tincture (1:5) (MAB); 1.8–7.5 g juice (MAD).
chelone glabra
Class 1 (AHP). Food Plant (DEM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
1 drachm leaf 3 ×/day (CEB); 0.5–1 g powdered herb (PNC); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PNC).
chenopodium ambrosioides
chenopodium vulvaria
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
chimaphila spp.
Salicylates, tannins, hydroquinone glycoside, hydroquinone
Class 1. Salicylates and tannins (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Unsuitable for long-term use because of hydroquinone glycoside content (PH2). Hypoglycemic. I question the accuracy of the report of quinine, but believe the reports of hydroquinone in several members of the Ericaceae, including this one. For snakebite, one chews the pulp, swallows the juice, and poultice the cud onto the bite after it has bled. It is also considered abortive. Native Americans poke crushed stems in their nose to alleviate snoring (GMJ). “Secoyas” mixed ground rhizome with water for fever, flu, and fright (SAR). In Piura, the chopped shoots are considered hemostatic and vulnerary.
1–3 g/tea (PH2); 1–4 ml liquid extract (PH2); 2.5–5 ml (PNC).
Class 1. Rare cases of diarrhea and gastrosis (AHP). Trichosanthin is quite dangerous, leading to acute pulmonary edema, cerebral edema and hemorrhage, and myocardosis. Severe side effects, also antigenic (FAY).
9–12 g (FAY).
chionanthus virginicus
Alterative, Aperient, Antipyretic, Bitter, Cholagogue, Diuretic, Hemolytic, Hepatic, Narcotic, Tonic
Class 1 (AHP). None noted (PHR). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (not given) (PH2). Overdoses may cause frontal headache, slow pulse, vomiting (FAD).
0.3–1.5 ml liquid root bark extract (PNC).
chlorella spp.
Not covered (AHP; KOM; LAF; PHR; SKY; etc.) Largely imported from Asia, this unicellular alga is said to interfere with clotting and augment other anticoagulant activity; one patient taking warfarin experienced clotting irregularities when he took Chlorella. APA reports severe anaphylactic reactions and photodermatosis.
2–3 (414 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (APA).
chondrodendron tomentosum
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (not given) (PH2). Overdoses of tubocurarine (and other curare alkaloids) can cause respiratory paralysis and hypotension. LD50’s are less than 1 mg/kg, 0.56 subcutaneously in mice, 0.5 intraperitoneally, and 0.18 intravenously in mice, and 0.2 mg/kg ivn in rabbits. An injection of neostigmine methylsulfate is suggested as an antidote (HAD).
chondrus crispus
mucilage, Carrageenan
Not covered (AHP; KOM). No hazards with oral administrations, but injections can trigger problems (PHR; PH2). The mucilage in Irish Moss swells when it contacts liquid, forming a mucilaginous coating that protects the stomach lining, reduces gastric secretions, and promotes healthy, bulky stools. The mucilage also protects mucous membranes in respiratory ailments. Carrageenan is hypocholesterolemic, and proinflammtory if injected.
Few sources list dosages; 1.5/cup alga tea (HHB; PH2).
chromolaena odorata
chrysanthemum x morifolium
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Chrysanthemum) — Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PH2). Unfortunately, Tillotson has mixed feverfew in with the mums, such that I don’t know to which he means his warning to apply, “Should not be used during pregnancy as it is a uterine stimulant. ...Some scientists voice concern about potential allergic reactions or cross reactivity with blood thinning agents such as warfarin or Ticlopidine” (AKT).
4.5–12 g flower (FAY).
cicer arietinum
flavonoids, daidzein, formononetin, pratensin, liquiritgenin, isoliquiritigenin, its 4'-glucoside, 4',7-dihydroxyflavonol, garbanzol, biochanin-7-glucoside, p-coumaric acid
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). The oxalic acid may be contraindicated in people with calculus (DEP). Boulos notes that
Food farmacy at its best (JAD). Seeds, sprouts, young pods, young leaves, and the vinegar off the leaves all eaten by humans. Best for the heart say I; hummus with plenty of garlic and olive oil; sesame and parsley optional, but good.
cichorium endivia
cichorium endivia l.
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Endive) — Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2).
Food farmacy (JAD). Interpreted by some as one of the bitter herbs of the Bible.
cichorium intybus l.
Class 1 (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports contraindications of hypersensitivity to chicory and other Asteraceae and adverse effects of rare allergic skin reactions. Patients with bilestones or gallstones should first consult a physician (AEH; KOM). Cadot et al. report “a first case of occupational allergy to chicory (Cichorium intybus) in a vegetable wholesaler. Symptoms occurred after oral, cutaneous, or inhalatory exposure.” Reactions were also noted after ingestion of the botanically related endive (Cichorium endivia) and lettuce (Latuca satiua). The responsible protein
3 g root (KOM); 3–5 g powdered root (PHR); 2–4 g/150–250 ml water (PH2).
cicuta maculata
“Children have been fatally poisoned by eating the roots. Symptoms include frothing at the mouth, diarrhea, nausea, abdominal pain, dilated pupils, delirium, tremors, and periodic violent convulsions alternating with brief relaxations. Convulsions may be so violent that vomiting is prevented, and the tongue may be chewed up. Death is due to cardiac or respiratory failure” (CRC). Too lethal to use, with poisonous compounds like in Poison Hemlock, it is highly toxic. Do not confuse with edible members of the celery family (FAD).
cicuta virosa
Not covered (AHP). Unskilled herbalists should steer clear of wild herbs in the carrot family (JAD). 2–3 g root potentially toxic (PH2).
Homeopathic dilutions only.
Cinchonidine, cinchonine, hydroquinine, quinidine, quinine
Commission E reports contraindications; pregnancy and hypersensitivity; adverse effects: allergic reactions, rarely thrombocytopenia; and interaction: potentiation of coumarin derivatives. Other sources report contraindication for GI-ulcer, adverse effects for allergic skin reactions and fever. Overdosing or prolonged use may produce toxic effects (AEH). 8–20 g quinine may be fatal in humans (WO2).
1 tsp bark boiled 5–10 min, 3 ×/day (MPG); 1–3 g bark (KOM); 10 grains for hay fever, hemicrania, neuralgia, pertussis, splenomegaly (MPI); 0.3–1 g powdered bark (PNC); 0.3–1 ml liquid extract (PNC); 0.3–1 ml cinchona extract (PNC); 2–4 ml cinchona tincture (PNC); maximum dose 50 mg alkaloids (PNC).
cinchona pubescens
cineraria aspera
“Emboden lists it as a narcotic hallucinogen of questionable status” (CRC).
cinnamomum aromaticum
cinnamomum aromaticum nees
Class 2b, reportedly abortifacient (AHP). CAN cautions that the cinnamaldehyde in the volatile oil is allergenic and irritant (CAN). May interfere with absorption of tetracycline (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Prolonged use of the EO should be restricted during preg- nancy (AHP). Commission E reports contraindications for bark: hypersensitivity to cinnamon or Peruvian balsam, also contraindicated in pregnancy; adverse effects: often allergic reactions of skin and mucosa (AEH). Flower not permitted for therapeutic use. EO LD50 = 320 mg/kg der (CAN); should not be used on skin at levels >0.2%. Aqueous extracts of cassia deemed as effective as cimetidine at preventing ulcers (BGB; WO2).
2–4 g ground bark/day (BGB; PH2); 0.7–1.3 g bark in 150 ml water 3 ×/day (BGB); 0.5–1 g bark as tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.05–0.2 ml cassia oil 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.3–1.2 ml fl tincture (1:5 in 90% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
cinnamomum camphora
cinnamomum tamala
Not approved.
1.5–3 g powdered leaf (KAB).
cinnamomum verum
cissampelos pareira
0.5–1.5 g powdered root (KAP); 28–56 ml root decoction (KAP); 2–8 ml liquid root extract (KAP).
cissampelos pareira l.
citrullus colocynthis
citrullus lanatus
Citrin (cucurbocitrin)
Not covered by AHP or KOM. “Eating unripe watermelons causes serious illness, even death” (JFM). Citrin (cucurbocitrin) is hypotensive.
5–8 g of the juice expressed from fresh seeds in 1 cup water for worms.
citrus aurantiifolia (christm.) swingle
furanocoumarins
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Possibility of phototoxicity with furanocoumarins.
citrus limon
Class 1 (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Slight potential for phototoxicity (PH2).
citrus reticulata
Coumarins, Tangeretin, Synephrine, Limonene
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PHR). Coumarins may photosensitize and may interact with other antiaggregants. Convulsions, enteric colic, and even death are reported in children following ingestion of large amounts of orange peel (AHP, speaking of C. aurantium, not this species, but the same chemicals, hence warning should prevail. 1997). Tangeretin may interfere with tamoxifen. Peel oil has proven antifungal activity. Peel contains the decongestant synephrine, probably synergistic with caffeine as a thermogenic. Peel is rich in limonene, with much promise in anticancer activity.
Fruit is food farmacy; 3–9 g powdered peel/day (AKT); peel of 3 tangerines boiled 10 minutes in 1 liter water; 1 tsp chopped rind/cup water; 20 drops tincture 3 ×/day has been suggested for orange peel Citrus aurantium (APA).
citrus sinensis
citrus sinensis (l.) osbeck
Other species are Class 1; this species is a food, and is not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports possible photosensitivity (PHR). None known (KOM). Coumarins may photosensitize and may interact with other anticoagulants. Convulsions, enteric colic, and even death are reported in children following ingestion of large amounts of orange peel (AHP, speaking of C. aurantium, not this species, but the same chemicals, hence warning should prevail). Extract LD50 = 7000 mg/kg mouse; safe dose 5000, surely fatal dose 10,000 (WBB).
Juice is a food pharmaceutical; 1 tsp chopped rind/cup water; 20 drops tincture 3 ×/day for Citrus aurantium (APA); 10–15 g pericarp (KOM).
citrus x paradisi
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHZ). The fruit and juice can potentiate many drugs dramatically and sometimes dangerously with poisonous pharmaceuticals with narrow therapeutic ranges. This potential should be studied and standardized to lower required dosages of those noted pharmaceuticals.
cladonia pyxidata
Not covered (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
claviceps purpurea
ergotamine
“Ergot is now contraindicated for all therapeutic use” (PH2). Not covered nor recommended any more, though ergotamine is still used for migraine (prescription only, I suppose).
Too dangerous.
clematis recta
Not covered (AHP). Hazards and/or side effects not known for therapeutic dosages of the dehydrated drug (PH2). Death by asphyxiation following the intake of large quantities of protoanemonine-forming plants has been
clematis vitalba
protoanemonin
Not covered (AHP; KOM). None known at proper dosage (PH2). “Clematis species have substances resembling protoanemonin, and may be fatal (the juice taken internally acts as a violent laxative). As noted above, this species does contain protoanemonin” (CRC).
clematis vitalba l.
cnicus benedictus
cnicin
Class 2b (AHP). Commission E reports contraindications: hypersensitivity to the plant and other Asteraceae; adverse effects of allergic reactions (AEH). High doses (>5 g/cup tea) may irritate the stomach and cause vomiting (AHP). Safety not established. Excessive use during pregnancy and lactation should be avoided. In view of emmenagogue citations, use in pregnancy discouraged (PED). Avoid this herb completely during pregnancy. “In view of the lack of toxicity data, excessive use of holy thistle should be avoided” (CAN). Also known as St. Benedict’s thistle, used in Benedictine. A strong emetic; vomiting can occur in overdoses. Stimulates gastric activity, avoid if you have an ulcer. Use only with medical supervision (TMA, 1996).
4000–6000 mg/day; 1.5–2 tsp chopped leaf/cup water, before meals; 1.5–3.0 g dried flowering shoots, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 10–20 drops extract in water; 1.5–3 ml liquid herbal extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 4–6 g herb/day (KOM; PH2); 1.5 g herb/cup water (HHB); 2–4 tbsp fresh herb (PED); 3–6 g dry herb (PED); 4.5 g dry herb:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 2 (360 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (APA).
coccinia grandis
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). Even though various parts are consumed as food, I have trouble giving a clean bill of health to this noxious weed. Ethanol extracts at 200 mg/kg lowered blood sugar 23% and 27%, respectively, in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic male rats. Root extracts are antiprotozoal against Entamoeba histolytica.
10–20 ml tea (KAP); 3–6 g powdered root (KAP).
cochlearia officinalis
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Scurvy-Grass) — Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
cochlospermum religiosum
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
3 g gum (PH2).
cocos nucifera
Not covered (AHP). None listed (PH2). “Health hazards not known when used as a food” (PH2). Coconut meat is hard to digest and may cause dyspepsia. The emmenagogue reports, sketchy though they are, may indicate caution among pregnant women (JAD). Extracts of the shell fibers showed NO antimicrobial activities (MPI).
Food farmacy (JAD). Four spoons of ginger in coconut water is an emmenagogue (JFM).
codonopsis spp.
Class 1 (AHP).
Up to 25 g root/day (APA); 30–60 g/day (FAY).
coffea arabica
Unknown ID
May cause cardiomyopathy in rabbits. Chrysarobin and toxalbumin may cause kidney and liver damage. Contains the COX-2-Inhibitor, apigenin.
cola acuminata
Caffeine
“Caffeine in large doses is reported to be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic. Caffeine is also viricidal, suppressing the growth of polio, influenza, herpes simplex, and vaccinia viruses, but not Japanese encephalitis virus, Newcastle disease, virus, and type 2 adenovirus. In 1978, an FDA advisory panel concluded that caffeine, as it is added to cola soft drinks, should be subject to a more restrictive regulatory approach. Removal of caffeine from the GRAS list ‘was urged’” (CRC).
cola nitida
cola spp.
Class 2b, 2d (AHP). Commission E reports contraindications: gastric and duodenal ulcers; adverse effects: trouble sleeping, hyperexcitability, nervousness; interactions: effect enhanced by psychoanaleptic drugs and caffeine-containing beverages (AEH). CNS stimulant, GI irritant. Contraindicated in high blood pressure, and gastric and duodenal ulcers. Not recommended for excessive or prolonged use (they seem to say this about most caffeine-containing plants) (AHP). CAN cautions that xanthine-containing beverages may cause anxiety, insomnia, palpitations, tremors, and withdrawal headaches. Because of the caffeine, consumption should be restricted in pregnancy and lactation, and in patients with hypertension and cardiac problems. “As with all xanthine containing beverages, excessive consumption by lactating mothers should be avoided” (CAN). Cola-containing beverages are said to “provide active doses of caffeine” (CAN). Caffeine has many reported activities, many perhaps shared synergistically withophylline and theobromine.
1–2 tsp powdered seed/cup water, up to 3 ×/day (APA); 1–3 g powdered seed (PNC); 2–6 g seed/day (PHR); 0.5–1 dropper full seed tincture or concentrate (APA); 1–3 g herb as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.6–1.2 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 60% ethanol) (CAN); 1–4 ml tincture (1:5 in 60% alcohol) (CAN); 25–750 mg cola extract (PHR); 1–4 ml kola tincture (PNC); 10–30 g cola tincture (PHR); 60–120 g cola wine; 0.6–1.2 ml liquid seed extract (PNC).
colchicum autumnale
colchicine
Not covered (AHP). Contraindicated in patients with pregnancy, debility, cardiac, kidney, or GI problems. Side effects include agranulocytosis, alopecia, aplastic anemia, diarrhea, enterosis, leukopenia, myopathy, nausea, skin alterations, and vomiting. No known interactions with other drugs. Do not use again for 3 days for gout (KOM). Colchicine may cause fetal abnormalities. Fatal doses as low as 7 mg (PNC).
1 mg colchicine initially and 0.5–1.5 mg every 1–2 hrs until relief (KOM).
collinsonia canadensis l.
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), Senkirkine, Sesquiterpene lactones, Unsaturated PAs
Class 2b, 2d (flower); long-term use discouraged. 2b, 2c, 2d (leaf); do not exceed recommended dose; not for long-term use (AHP). Commission E reports flower, herb, root not permitted for therapeutic use. Contains hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) in all plant parts. Leaf is permitted for oral use. Contraindications in pregnancy and lactation. CAN cautions that the PAs are genotoxic, carcinogenic, and hepatotoxic. Because of the PAs, coltsfoot use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). Dosage maximum 10 g PA/day (herbal tea) or maximum 1 g PA/day (extracts, expressed sap) for maximum 4–6 weeks/year (AEH). Commission E advises not to take more than 4 to 6 weeks of the year at 4.5 to 6 g/day. This is the only herb (1.5–6 g leaf/day) except related Petasites with toxic PAs still tolerated by Commission E. Still, CAN cautions that coltsfoot is phototoxic in guinea pig skin. In guinea pig sensitization experiments, it showed weak allergenic capacity, possibly due to the sesquiterpene lactones present in the plant. PAs are toxic to humans, with liver damage with cirrhosis and ascites, or seneciosis, or veno-occlusive disease (VOD) reported in almost all cases of severe or fatal intoxications, from intakes of 0.5 mg/kg to 3.3 mg/kg (AEH1). Effective July 1996, the AHP Board of Trustees recommends that all products with botanical ingredient(s) that contain toxic PAs, including Borago officinalis, display the following cautionary statement on the label, “For external use only. Do not apply to broken or abraded skin. Do not use when nursing” (AHP). Canadians do not allow in food (Blackburn, 1993). Bisset says there is no danger of acute poisoning when used as prescribed (Bisset, 1994). Hepatotoxicity of coltsfoot may be due to senkirkine (~150 ppm), highlighting the dangers of chronic exposure to even low doses of PAs. Rats fed more than 4% coltsfoot in their diet develop hepatic tumors. Newborn rats are more susceptible than weanlings to hepatotoxicity of senkirkine despite lacking the hepatic microsomal enzymes required to produce the toxic pyrrholic metabolites. Fatal hepatic veno-occlusive disease was documented in a newborn infant whose mother chronically consumed herb teas during pregnancy (coltsfoot and senecio specified). The mother exhibited no signs of hepatic damage again suggesting increased sensitivity of the fetal liver to PA toxicity. Animal studies document placental transfer and secretion into breast milk of unsaturated PAs (CAN). Excessive doses may interfere with blood pressure and heart therapy (CAN).
2 tsp powdered leaf/cup water (APA; WIC); 0.3–0.6 g solid leaf extract (PNC); 2–4 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC); 4.5–6 g leaf, 0.6–2.0 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.6–2.0 g herb as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–8 ml tincture (1:5 in 45% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–8 ml syrup (1:4 liquid extract in syrup) 3 ×/day (CAN); 4 g root as diaphoretic (MAD); 1.5–2.5 g leaf or flower/cup tea, to 6 g day (PH2); 0.6–2 ml liquid flower extract (PNC).
combretum micranthum
commiphora
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Myrrh) — Class 2b. None known (KOM; PHR). “No adverse effects from myrrh have been reported” (SKY). Emmenagogue and uterotonic. Contraindicated in uterorrhagia. Doses >2–4 g may cause diarrhea and nephrosis. French permit only external application (AHP). Undiluted tincture may produce burning and local irritation (AEH). CAN cautions that because it is reputed to affect the menstrual cycle, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. May interfere with diabetic therapies. In view of the lack of toxicological data, excessive use should be avoided (CAN). Apprehension, diarrhea, hiccups, and restlessness have been reported as side effects of gugulipid administration (CAN).
veral ×/day (MAD); 1–2 ml tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 2.5–5.0 ml myrrh tincture (CAN; PNC); 8–10 drops myrrh extract to 4 ×/day (APA); 0.3–1.2 g resin/day (HHB); 1 g resin 3 ×/day (SKY); 0.3–1.5 g (MAD).
commiphora myrrha
Class 2b. None known (KOM; PHR). “No adverse effects from myrrh have been reported” (SKY). Emmenagogue and uterotonic. Contraindicated in uterorrhagia. Doses >2–4 g may cause diarrhea and nephrosis. French permit only external application (AHP). Undiluted tincture may produce burning and local irritation (AEH). CAN cautions that because it is reputed to affect the menstrual cycle, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. May interfere with diabetic therapies. In view of the lack of toxicological data, excessive use should be avoided (CAN). Apprehension, diarrhea, hiccups, and restlessness have been reported as side effects of gugulipid administration (CAN).
1 tsp powdered myrrh/cup water 1–2 ×/day (APA); 5–10 drops tincture/glass water for mouthwash or gargle (APA); 6–10 drops tincture several ×/day (MAD); 1–2 ml tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 2.5–5.0 ml myrrh tincture (CAN; PNC); 8–10 drops myrrh extract to 4 ×/day (APA); 0.3–1.2 g resin/day (HHB); 1 g resin 3 ×/day (SKY); 0.3–1.5 g (MAD).
commiphora myrrha (nees) engl.
commiphora wightii
guggulsterones, guggulipid
Class 2b. Emmenagogue and uterotonic (AHP). Anorexia, apprehension, colic, dermatosis, diarrhea, eructations, headache, hiccup, nausea, and restlessness were documented side effects of crude oleoresin or guggulipid therapy (CAN; KEB; SKY). Persons with diarrhea, hepatosis, and IBS should be cautious (SKY). A practitioner should be consulted when treating high cholesterol or triglycerides (SKY). In view of the lack of toxicological data, excessive use, especially during lactation and pregnancy, should be avoided (CAN).
25 mg guggulsterones 2–3 ×/day (APA); 250–500 mg StX (5–10% guggulsterone) (APA; SKY); 1200–1500 mg guggulipid/day (ca 40–60 mg guggulsterone) (KEB); 1.5 drachms (DEP).
comptonia peregrina
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). No side effects reported during therapeutic use (AEH; PHR).
1–4 g powdered bark (PNC); 1.5 g bark/cup tea (HHB); average daily dose bark 2–4 g (HH2; PHR); 2–4 g/day (HH2); 0.2–0.5 g aqueous extract (?); 0.5–4 ml tincture (HHB); 2–5 g tincture; 2–4 g liquid extract (PHR); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PNC); 1 cup wine 30 minutes before meals (50–100 g/liter wine) (PH2).
conium maculatum
consolida ajacis
ajacine, delphinine
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). “Seed and leaf can induce dermatosis. Alkaloids ajacine and delphinine, occurring in seed and young plants of most Delphinium spp. Ingestion may cause stomach upset and nervous symptoms; death may occur if the plant is eaten in large quantities, especially by children. In Asia the seeds are reported to poison cattle; still they are used as cathartic and emetic” (CRC).
consolida regalis
toxic alkaloids, Ajacine, delphinine
Not covered (AHP). No health risks or side effects reported from proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages (PH2). But the LD50 in rabbits, intravenously, is only 1.5–3 mg/kg (PH2). Commission E reports flower is not permitted for therapeutic use (KOM), while citing unapproved folk usage as diuretic, orexigenic, sedative, and vermifuge. The plant contains toxic alkaloids, but there are no reliable data on the alkaloid level in the flowers (AEH). Alkaloids are bradycardic, cardiodepressant, CNS-depressant, hypotensive, and respiradepressant. Seed and leaf of some species are dermatitigenic. Ajacine and delphinine occur in seed and young plants of many Delphinium spp. Ingestion of such species may upset nerves and stomach, death may occur if the plant is eaten
convallaria majalis
convallotoxin
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports
0.6 g standardized herb powder (KOM); 0.3–0.6 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 0.3–1.2 ml herb tincture (PNC); effective dose of convallotoxin (sic) = 0.4–0.6 mg, the prepared dose 0.2–0.3 mg, iv (PH2).
conyza canadensis
copaifera langsdorfii
Not covered (AHP). Five grams can cause stomach pain (PH2). Large doses are laxative and emetic; causing strangury, bloody urine, and fever. The resin irritates the entire mucous membrane, imparting a peculiar odor to the urine and breath; causes an eruption resembling measles, attended with irritation and tingling (JAD).
0.5–1 g capsule (MAD); 25–30 drops tincture 3 ×/day (MAD).
coptis spp.
berberine
Class 2b. Emmenagogue/uterine stimulant (AHP). Not covered (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper
0.5–1.2 g powdered rhizome; 2–4 ml liquid extract (PNC); 1.5–6 g crude drug/day (WHO).
corallorhiza odontorrhiza
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
corchorus
cardiac glycosides, chlorogenic acid, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, quercetin 3-galactoside, quercetin 3-glucoside, quercetin-3-(6-malonylglucoside), quercetin 3-(6-malonylgalactoside), folacin, vitamin B6
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Jute) — Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Leaves edible. Large doses (drenches) of 100–500 mg/kg powdered seeds killed pigs, following symptoms of anorexia, dysentery, and vomiting. So keep seed out of your mallow greens (Austral. Vet. J. 58(6):264–5).
corchorus olitorius
cardiac glycosides, Chlorogenic acid, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, quercetin 3-galactoside, quercetin 3-glucoside, quercetin-3-(6-malonylglucoside), quercetin 3-(6-malonylgalactoside)
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Leaves edible. Large doses (drenches) of 100–500 mg/kg powdered seeds killed pigs, following symptoms of anorexia, dysentery, and vomiting. So keep seed out of your mallow greens (Austral. Vet. J. 58(6):264–5).
coriandrum sativum
Class 1 (AHP). None known (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1–2 tsp crushed fruit/cup water up to 3 ×/day (APA); 3 g fruit (KOM; PHR); 0.3–1 g powdered fruit (PNC); 0.5–2 ml liquid fruit extract (PNC); 0.05–2 (they said 2, I’d have said 0.2; cf celery seed, close kin) ml EO (PNC).
coriaria ruscifolia subsp. microphylla
“Classified as a narcotic hallucinogen (giving flight sensations). The LD50 for the leaves is 3.75 mg/kg, mature fruits 1.55, and green fruits 0.45 mg/kg. Frequent symptoms of intoxication include stupor, vertigo, convulsion. Death may result from asphyxia, respiratory paralysis, and heart failure.” (CRC).
1 mg as a stimulant in case of collapse (CRC).
cornus canadensis
cornus florida
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Warning: As with hard toothbrushes, chewing sticks of dogwood can cause receding gums (FAD).
2–4 g powdered bark (PNC); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PNC).
cornus officinalis
Class 2d. Contraindicated in those with difficult or painful urination (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
3–12 g fruit (PH2).
corydalis ambigua and/or corydalis yanhusuo
gindarin, dl-tetrahydropalmatine, dehydrocorydaline, tetrahydroberberin
Oral doses of 1–50 mg/kg gindarin, based on dl-tetrahydropalmatine, embryotoxic to rats in days 1–20 of pregnancy.
2–6 g dry root/day or 4–12 ml fluid extract (1:2) for most purposes; 5–10 g dry root/day or 10–20 ml fluid extract (1:2) for analgesia (KEB).
corynanthe pachycera
Corynanthine
Not covered (AHP; EFS; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Over-doses potentially toxic, with convulsions and dyspnea. Stem bark is hypotensive and sedative (HDN). Corynanthine has twice the aphrodisiac effect on dogs as yohimbine, yet is 10–17 times less piscicidal as yohimbine (HDN).
200 mg dry extract 1–4 ×/day (PH2).
costus speciosus
Unknown ID
Class 1 (AHP). “Canadian regulations do not allow crampbark as a non-medicinal ingredient for oral use products” (Michols, 1995). Not for use by anyone with kidney stones (WAM). Large overdoses may cause coma, dry mouth, dyspnea, irregular movements, nausea, and irregular speech.
15 g/bark/750 ml water (APA); 1 tsp tincture/cup water to 3 ×/day (APA); 2–4 g bark in decoction (HH3); 2–8 ml liquid bark extract (PNC); 1.8–3.5 g fl extract (MAD).
Unknown ID
Anthocyanins, polyphenols
Strangely (AHP) omitted this from their Botanical Safety Handbook, but I suppose they would call it Class 1. The Commission E and herbal PDR apparently also ignored this excellent food farmaceutical too (KOM; PHR). Ingestion of ridiculous amounts (3–4 liters a day) may cause diarrhea and other GI disorders (LRNP, Aug. 1987). Lininger et al. (1998) say it is safe for use during pregnancy and lactation. Should not be used as an antibiotic substitute during acute UTI (SKY).
3 fluid oz (90 ml) fruit juice/day (APA preventative); 12–32 fluid oz fruit juice/day (APA curative); 1 oz cranberry juice cocktail = 2 capsules (APA); 5–20 oz/day; 800 mg capsules; 2–4 (505 mg) capsules 3 ×/day; 2–3 (505 mg) capsules StX with meals (APA); 1/2 cup fresh fruit (PED); 1 tbsp dry fruit (PED); 15 g dry fruit:20 ml alcohol/130 ml water (PED).
crataegus
flavonoids, procyanidins, vitexins, vitexin-2′′-O-rhamnoside, OPCs, bioflavonoids, tyramine
Class 1 (AHP). May potentiate digitalis (AHP) and other cardiac medicines (WAM). Can interfere with cardiac, hypertensive, and hypotensive therapies. “Not suitable for self medication” (CAN). Contrast that with Lininger et al., “Hawthorn is extremely safe for long term use ... No known interactions with prescription cardiac medications or other drugs ... No known contraindications ... during pregnancy or lactation” (SKY). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Not for children under 12 years old (PH2). CAN cautions that because of uterine activity, in vivo and in vitro, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Not for use during first trimester of pregnancy (PH2). LRNP (January 1994), admitting that low doses are usually devoid of adverse effects, says that high doses may induce hypotension (that can be good in hypertension) and sedation (which can be good in insomnia). Side effects reported include fatigue, nausea, rash, and sweating (CAN). The tyramine content might suggest avoidance of MAOIs. High dose may be arrhythmogenic, hypotensive, sedative, tremorigenic, and vertigogenic (PH2). Still, in combination with beta-blockers “may cause a hypertensive effect” (PH2). May potentiate other cardiac drugs!
1 tsp (1.8 g) chopped leaf and/or flower 2–3 ×/day, for a few weeks (APA); 1.5–3.5 g dry flower, leaf, fruit/day (MAB); 4–5 g fruit/day (SKY); 2–6 tsp fresh fruit (PED); 1–3 g dry fruit (PED); 0.3–1 g dry fruit, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2 g dry fruit:10 ml alcohol/10 ml water (PED); average daily dose (5 g) in 1-g increments or 160–900 mg extract (standardized to flavonoids or procyanidins) in 3 doses (PH2); 0.5–1 ml liquid extract (PNC); 0.5–1 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 3–6 ml fluid leaf extract (1:2) (MAB); 3–7 ml fluid fruit extract (1:2) (MAB); 4–5 ml tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 1 tsp tincture morning and night for several weeks (APA); 7.5–15 ml leaf tincture (1:5) (MAB); 7.5–17.5 ml fruit tincture (1:5) (MAB); 1–2 ml herbal tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–3 (450 mg) capsules (StX to contain 100 mg certified potency hawthorn extract with a minimum of preferred 1.8 mg vitexins, including vitexin-2′′-O-rhamnoside, synergistically combined in a base of Hawthorn Berry powder) with a large glass of water (NH); 80–160 mg StX 3 ×/day; 80–500 mg StX 2–3 ×/day 2.2% bioflavonoids, or 18.75% OPCs (SKY).
crataegus spp.
crataeva nurvala
Not covered (AHP; KOM).
15–25 g dry bark or root bark (KEB); 5–10 ml 1:2 extract (KEB).
crescentia cujete
Not recommended for internal consumption (TRA). Fruit pulp may be carcinogenic; ingestion may produce severe diarrhea (TRA).
crithmum maritimum
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (dosage not given) (PH2).
Food farmacy (FAC; TAN).
crocus sativus
Class 2b. Abortifacient, emmenagogue, and uterotonic. Severe side effects may result from ingesting 5 g saffron (LD = 20 g) (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Controversial. The 200 mg/kg dose of saffron alleged to extend the life of cancerous mice translates to 22,000 mg or 22 grams saffron with this 100-kg rat named Jim Duke. Commission E reports no risks for doses up to 1.5 g; however, 5 g is toxic, 10 g is abortive, and 20 g is lethal (AEH; PHR). Conversely, Tucker and DeBaggio report that “ingesting 0.05 oz (1.5 g) of saffron has resulted in death” (TAD). Paradoxically, the life-saving dose is lethal! It’s good that saffron is so expensive, we won’t have too many fools overdosing on it. Preferring to err on the safe side, let’s think of saffron only as an expensive spice to be used judiciously. Paella anyone?
10–15 stigmata/cup water (APA); 0.5–1.5 g day (APA; HHB); 0.5–2.5 g saffron (PNC); 0.1–1 g powdered saffron (MAD); 15–16 drops tincture (MAD).
crocus sativus l.
croton eluteria
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Cascarilla) — Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) “Possibly narcotic. As an aromatic additive to tobacco, it is said to have caused intoxication and vertigo” (CRC). Doses more than 2 g may induce headache, insomnia, and nausea (HHB).
1 g bark or 10 g bark decoction (HHB).
croton lechleri
Taspine, pycnogenol™, dimethylcedrusine
Pisco suggests a couple drops of the “blood” in a glass of water for topical and internal applications.
croton tiglium
Not covered (AHP). To be strictly avoided (PH2). 1–2 drops are acutely toxic, causing burning mouth, dizziness, painful bowel movement, stupor, vomiting, and ultimately collapse. 20 drops of croton oil are lethal.
Historically only, 100 mg oil, individual dose; to 300 mg/day; or 4–8 seed (HHB).
cryptostegia grandiflora
“All parts may cause severe stomach and intestinal upset. Cases of death have been reported from India. The leaf is toxic. Dry vine emits an eye-irritating dust which may induce coughing and swelling” (CRC).
cucumis melo
Biblical food farmacy. All things in moderation (JAD).
cucurbita pepo
delta-7-sterols, selenium, cucurbitacins
Class 1 (AHP; JAD).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). There are no known side effects or drug-drug interactions (PIP). Varro Tyler cautioned against self medication with BPH. Whenever treating BPH, a practitioner should be involved. Base-line levels of PSA should be established before considering an herbal treatment (JAD).
Seeds are food farmacy! 60–500 g seed (APA); average single dose 50 g; 100–200 shelled seed kernels = 30–60 g (HHB); 10 g crushed seed (PHR; PH2; SHT).
cullen corylifolium
Unknown ID
Class 1 (AHP). None noted (PHR). Not covered (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
300–600 mg (HHB); 0.06–0.2 ml (HHB); 5–10 fruits (PHR); 300 to 600 gm (PHR) (I’m sure they did not mean that, that’s 1–2 pounds, close to a lethal dose, I’d bet); corrected in PH2 to 300–600 mg (= 5–10 fruit).
cuminum cyminum
cunila origanoides
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). I feel it as safe as thyme and oregano, based on the limited list of chemicals available to me.
Probably on par with thyme, culinarily and medicinally (i.e., 1 tsp herb/cup water 1–3 ×/day; 1–4 g dry herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day; 1–2 g/cup several ×/day).
cupressus sempervirens
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) Large doses may irritate kidney (PH2).
0.5–2 g fluid extract (HHB); 0.15–0.2 g aqueous extract (HHB).
curculigo orchioides
Class 3 (AHP).
180 grains beaten with equal amount of sugar in water (DEP); 1–2 oz rhizome with warm milk and sugar for convalescence (KAP); 3–6 g powdered root (KAP).
curcuma longa
Curcumin, Curcuminoids, Genistein, EO, curcumin, phenylbutazone, piperine, sodium curcuminate, 1-Phenylhydroxy-N-pentane
Class 2b. Emmenagogue and uterotonic. Contraindicated in patients with bile duct obstruction, gallstones, hyperacidity, and stomach ulcers (AHP; AEH). While in moderate doses, turmeric is said to inhibit cancers, lymphomas and ulcers, overdoses of curcuminoids may possibly be cytotoxic and ulcerogenic, and may lead to diminution of red and white corpuscles. Still, Commission E approves 1.5–3 g/day, not nearly enough to provide 1200 mg curcumin. Commission E also reports contraindications: biliary obstruction; adverse effects: GI irritation from continued use; consult physicians before using if a patient has gallstones (BIS; KOM). At 10% of diet, turmeric caused some loss of hair in rats (MAB). Care should be taken in women who wish to conceive or patients complaining of alopecia (MAB). Rather frightening what one reads in UPW (2000): Laboratory animals treated with it are reported to have been rendered entirely infertile. Women who are pregnant, or children (not yet widely in children) with gallbladder or liver disease or ulcers, should avoid turmeric (WAM). Limit internal use to 10 days (WAM). | EO showed significant antihistaminic and antiinflammatory activity, the latter at 0.1 ml/kg, which translates to 10 ml for me, a rather dangerous dose. Turmeric had no effect on serum alanine aminotransferase, aspartate amino transferase, blood glucose, creatinine, and lipid profile (MAB). While ulcerogenic in large doses, curcumin is only about one-third as ulcerogenic as the phenylbutazone. LD50 ether extracts 12,200 mg/kg orl rat (MAB), LDlo curcumin >2000 mg/kg orl mus (MAB), LDlo curcumin >5000 mg/kg orl rat (MAB).
4 g turmeric powder in water 1–2 ×/day (MAB); 3–9 g crude turmeric/day (WHO); 4.5–9 g rhizome/day as tea (AHP); 0.1 g rhizome up to 20 g/day (HHB); 1.5–3 g rhizome (KOM); 0.5–1 g rhizome several ×/day between meals, or 1.5–3 g day, often with warm milk (APA); 1 tsp rhizome/cup warm milk (APA); 0.5–1 g oral rhizome infusion 3 ×/day (WHO); 5–14 ml fluid rhizome extract (1:1) divided in 4–5 doses (MAB); 3–5 g fresh herb (PED); 0.3–0.5 g dry herb (PED); 0.4 g dry herb:2 ml alcohol/2 ml water (PED); 1.5–3 g crude drug/day (SHT); 400 mg curcumin 3 ×/day (SKY); 1200 mg curcumin (APA); 1 (445 mg) StX capsule 2–3 ×/day (JAD); 300 mg capsules to 3 ×/day (APA). | curcumin (1200 mg/day). At a dose of 1.5 g/day/30 days, turmeric reduced urinary excretion of mutagens in an uncontrolled trial of 16 chronic smokers. Turmeric extract (~20 mg curcumin/day) for 45 days dramatically decreased blood lipid peroxide levels in 18 male subjects (MAB). But in human volunteers, 20 mg piperine increases bioavailability of curcumin 20-fold (MAB). | If administered with piperine (from black and long pepper), absorption is improved more than 150% in rats. But in human volunteers, 20 mg piperine increases bioavailability of curcumin 20-fold (MAB).
curcuma longa l.
curcuma xanthorrhiza
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports contraindications: biliary obstruction; adverse effects: GI irritation from continued use (AEH; KOM; PH2).
2 g rhizome (KOM; PHR); rhizome tea (0.5 tsp/cup water) 2–3 ×/day (PHR).
curcuma zedoaria
curcumin, curcumol, curdione
Class 2b (AHP), cautions about excessive use during excessive menstruation. Unapproved by KOM. “Since the effectiveness for the claimed applications is not documented, a therapeutic use of this herb cannot be recommended” (KOM). Not for use during pregnancy (PH2).
14–28 ml root tea (KAP); 1–1.5 g root/cup water (PHR); 1:4 rhizome:liquid extract (PH2); 300 and 450 mg capsules (PH2).
cuscuta epithymum
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) Overdoses may cause colic (PH2).
cyamopsis tetragonoloba
Class 2d. Take with 250 ml (8 oz) water (AHP); early on may cause diarrhea, gas, or nausea (AHP). No health risks known in conjunction with the proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages (PH2). Bulking agents should not be taken by those with stenotic lesions of the GI tract. May lead to bowel obstruction if fluid intake is inadequate. Do not take bulking agents when laying down or at bedtime. Do not use with antiperistaltics (such as, for example, loperamide) (SHT).
5 g 3 ×/day (PH2); 15 g/day guar gum (SHT).
cycas revoluta
cycas revoluta thunb.
“Cycasin is carcinogenic if orally administered to rats and pigs. With cattle neurotoxic effects are obvious. Other toxic symptoms include anemia, depression, diarrhea, jaundice, gastroenterosis, hemorrhage, nausea, coma, partial paralysis, and possibly death. Apparently it is mutagenic to onion root tip cells. Frequent use of the starch is suspected to cause cancer and hepatosis” (CRC).
cyclamen europaeum
Not covered (AHP). As little as 300 mg can lead to diarrhea, nausea, stomach pain, and vomiting. Higher spasmogenic doses can cause asphyxiation (PH2).
Do not take in anything more than a homeopathic dosage.
cydonia oblonga
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
Fruit food farmacy. 1 tsp seed/cup water (PH2).
cymbopogon citratus
cynara cardunculus
cynara cardunculus subsp. cardunculus
caffeoylquinic acids, Sesquiterpene lactones
Not covered (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports contraindications of hypersensitivity to artichoke and other Asteraceae; biliary obstruction or gallstones (AEH; KOM). None expected (MAB). Sesquiterpene lactones are allergenic and may cause dermatosis (CAN).
Food farmacy; 2–3 (100 mg) capsule StX for 15 mg each caffeoylquinic acids (APA); 1–4 g leaf 3 ×/day (CAN); 1.5–9 g dry leaf/day (MAB); 1–4 g root 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–4 g stem 3 ×/day (CAN); 3–8 ml fluid extract (1:2) (MAB); 500 mg dry extract (PH2).
cynoglossum officinale
Analgesic (f; HHB; PH2; PNC), Antispasmodic (f; EFS), Antitumor (1; DAA), Antitussive (f; PHR), Astringent (f; EFS; PNC), Carcinogenic (1; PH2), Curare (1; HHB), CNS-Paralytic (1; HHB), Demulcent (f; EFS; PNC), Emollient (f; EFS), Expectorant (1; PH2), Hemostat (f; EFS), Hepatotoxic (1; PH2), Poison (1; PH2), Sedative (f; HHB; PHR), Vulnerary (f; PH2)
Not covered (AHP). Hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic, should under no circumstances be taken internally (PHR). Use not recommended due to toxic PAs (PNC). Though I use the KOM abbreviation, where there is no “2,” the indication was unapproved by Commission E, usually with the boiler plate disavowal, “The effectiveness of the herb for the claimed applications is not documented.” Commission E has rejected therapeutic use of Cynoglossum officinale because PAs are present and because therapeutic usefulness has not been sufficiently documented. PAs are toxic to humans, with liver damage with cirrhosis and ascites, or seneciosis, or veno-occlusive disease (VOD), reported in almost all cases of severe or fatal intoxications, from intakes of 0.5 to 3.3 mg/kg (AEH1). Cynoglossine paralyzes peripheral nerve endings in frogs. Consolicine and consolidine paralyze the CNS, and is three times more potent than cynoglossine (PHR).
cyperus articulatus l.
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
6–9 g root (PH2).
cypripedium spp.
Reported to be allergenic; may cause dermatosis, giddiness, hallucinations, headache, mental excitement, and restlessness (CAN). I’m sure APA had good intentions, but their quote, which follows, may put further pressure on an already rare species, “Lady’s slipper can cause psychedelic reactions” (APA). Foster and Duke may stir up some other unusual lady slipper diggers looking for relief from “mental depression from sexual abuse.” “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
2–4 g root, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN; PH2; PNC); 2–4 ml liquid root extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN; PH2; PNC).
cytisus scoparium
tyramine, sparteine, genistein, sarothamnine
Class 2b (JAD), 3. Abortifacient (AHP). Bravely, Commission E says no known side effects or contraindications (KOM). A rather heroic herb I do not recommend, like CAN which says, “broom is not suitable for self medication.” Containing tyramine, it should not be used with MAOIs (KOM). Commission E reports flower contains only low level of alkaloids (major alkaloid sparteine), so that toxic alkaloidal effects should not be expected. Contraindications: hypertension; Interactions: MAOIs (the flower may contain more than 2% of tyramine). And as early as 1938, it was contraindicated in acute nephropathy (MAD). Sparteine was reported as a cardiac depressant (CAN). Also contraindicated in cardiopathy and high blood pressure. Contraindicated during pregnancy (AEH). Because sparteine is oxytocic, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). Here I see the oft-repeated anomaly, a low dose may have the opposite effect (tachycardic) of high doses (bradycardic). Sparteine is more quinidine-like than digitalic, a powerful oxytocic once used to stimulate uterine constrictions (CAN). Sparteine sulphate can produce respiratory arrest (CAN). Sparteine is a negative chronotropic and a negative inotropic. Doses corresponding to >300 mg sparteine (ca. 30 g herb). May induce dizziness, headache, ocular palsy, palpitations, prickly sensations in the extremities, profuse sweating, sleepiness, and weakness of the legs. Flowers may contain 2% tyramine, a hypotensive, sympathomimetic, and vasoconstrictor. German experts consider broom on par with quinidine for arrhythmia (But quinidine is an herbal derivative, too). Madaus mentioned, as early as 1938, that genistein and sarothamnine’s activities were little know at that time (MAD). Ironically, Commission E approves this poisonous herb (Cytisus) for functional heart and circulatory disorders, whereas the PDR (PHR; PH2) indicates Commission E approval of the herb for hypertension (I refuse to add that to indications above, because it is more liable to cause than cure hypertension; I think they intended hypotension as an indication), while contraindicating the herb and flower in high blood pressure. So, it even contradicts itself.
Level tsp chopped flower shoot/cup water 3–4 ×/day (APA); 1–2 g dry tops as tea (CAN); 1–2 ml liquid top extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) (CAN); 0.5–2 ml top tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) (CAN); 1–1.5 g dry herb (no more than 1 mg/ml sparteine); 2–4 ml liquid shoot extract (PNC); 4–8 ml concentrated shoot infusion (PNC); 8–15 ml concentrated shoot decoction (PNC).
cytisus scoparius
daemonorops draco
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
daphne mezereum
Mezerein
Not covered (AHP). Too toxic for modern recommendation (PH2). Mezerein is antileukemic (PNC).
datura inoxia
Not covered (AHP). Narcotic hallucinogen and hypnotic. See D. stramonium (CRC). Used by shamans, sometimes with fatal results; children have become intoxicated after sucking the nectar (WBB).
datura metel
Analgesic (f; CRC; SUW; WBB), Anesthetic (f; CRC; KAB), Antispasmodic (f; SUW), Bronchodilator (f; CRC), Demulcent (f; CRC), Expectorant (f; CRC), Hypnotic (f; CRC), Insecticide (f; WBB), Intoxicant (1; CRC; WBB), Lactifuge (f; SUW), Mydriatic (1; WBB), Narcotic (1; CRC; SUW), Pediculicide (1; KAB), Piscicide (1; WBB), Poison (1; CRC; WBB), Sedative (1; CRC), Stimulant (f; WBB), Vermifuge (f; KAP)
Not covered (AHP). “See D. stramonium” (CRC). Linnaeus is suggested to have said that this might be preferable to stramonium (DEP).
datura stramonium
belladonna alkaloids
Not covered (AHP). Do not take it (JAD). Commission E reports leaf and seed not permitted for oral use. Contains toxic belladonna alkaloids (AEH). Contraindicated in acute pulmonary edema, glaucoma, paralytic ileus, prostatosis, pyloric stenosis, and tachycardic arrhythmia (PHR). High doses lead to central excitation, compulsive chatter, delirium, hallucination, mania, and restlessness, often followed by exhaustion and lethargy, and/or sleep (CRC; PH2).
50–100 mg powdered leaf 1–3 ×/day (PH2); 50 mg seed (PH2). Indians apply warmed leaves to the breast to reduce lactation and firm the breast (ZUL).
daucus carota
Coumarin, myristicin, choline
Seed treated as Class 2b (AHP). CAN caution that furanocoumarins are phototoxic and may cause dermatosis. “In view of the documented estrogenic activity and potentially toxic irritant volatile oil, excessive doses of wild carrot during pregnancy and lactation should be avoided” (CAN). Excessive doses may interfere with blood pressure, cardiac, and hormone medications.
1–2 raw carrots (APA); 1–2 cups carrot juice (APA); 2–4 g dry herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
daucus carota l. subsp. carota
furanocoumarins, coumarin, myristicin, choline
Class 2b (AHP). CAN cautions that furanocoumarins are phototoxic and may cause dermatosis. 60% antifertility effects in rats are reported. Conversely, 20%, 40%, and 10% activities were exhibited by aqueous, alcoholic, and petrol extracts, respectively. Weak estrogenic and antiimplantation activity reported for seed extracts. Coumarin is a weak estrogen. Excessive doses may interfere with blood pressure, cardiac, and hormone medications. “In view of the documented estrogenic activity and potentially toxic irritant volatile oil, excessive doses of wild carrot during pregnancy and lactation should be avoided” (CAN). Seeds contain psychoactive myristicin (APA). The faces of my granddaughter and Judi’s daughter, especially their noses, turned orange after eating a full bottle of carrot baby food. Seed oil LD50 = >5000 mg/kg orl mus, LD50 = >5000 mg/kg der gpg, antispasmodic (1/10th papaverine). Cholinergic activity reported for choline, no real surprise there. A 1995 study of carrot extracts showed that it protected the liver from carbon-tetrachloride damage (APA).
1–2 raw carrots (APA); 1–2 cups carrot juice (APA); 2–4 g dry herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
daucus carota subsp. sativus
delphinium staphasiagria
Not covered (AHP). 2 tsp seed leads to collapse with labored breathing, stomach pain, and weakened pulse.
Use only homeopathic dilutions.
delphinium staphisagria
As so often in plants that I describe as too dangerous to take, many of the folk indications come from homeopathy (especially those labeled (f; HHB; PH2) below), which stresses poisonous plants in extremely high doses. Unfortunately, the naive don’t always understand the homeopathic dosages. All are poisonous and dangerous, and probably not reliably distinguished by nonbotanists.
desmodium adscendens
1–2 tsp dry leaf in 3 divided doses to prevent asthma (AAB); steep whole plant in rum for backache; take 0.25 glass 3 ×/day (AAB).
desmodium gangeticum (l.) dc.
dianthus caryophyllus
EO, benzyl-benzoate, eugenol, cis-3-hexenylbenzoate
dianthus chinensis
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Contraindicated in kidney and/or spleen deficiency, and during pregnancy (FAY).
4.5–9 g in decoction (FAY).
dicentra canadensis
Not covered (AHP; KOM). None recorded at proper dosage (not given) (PH2). Bicuculline could cause poisoning in high doses (PH2).
dicentra cucullaria
Bicuculline
Not covered (AHP; KOM). None recorded at proper dosage (not stated) (PH2). Bicuculline could cause poisoning in high doses (PH2).
None recorded at proper dosage (not stated) (PH2).
dichroa febrifuga
gamma dichroine, alpha-dichroine, beta-dichroine, febrifugine
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Though 100 times more antimalarial than quinine, gamma (not alpha, as reported in DAA) dichroine can cause diarrhea, GI hypersecretion, hemorrhage, hyperperistalsis, hypotension, tachypnea, and death (DAA). Gamma dichroine is highly emetic, causing hydropic hepatic degeneration.
dictamnus albus
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Mutagenic, phototoxic, uterotonic.
20 g herb/liter water (PH2); 1 tsp root/2 glasses water (PH2). Strangely, PH2 suggests one g fresh herb or 2 g dry herb/cup water (PH2).
dieffenbachia seguine
“Acicular crystals of calcium oxalate, accompanied by a protein (enzyme) or asparagine, may cause severe burning in the mouth and throat. Swelling of the mouth may be severe enough to cause fatal choking. The sap, under some conditions, is an irritant and vesicant. Contact with bruised plants seemed to be necessary for irritation. Panama natives, to this day, blame an indolent ulcer I suffered on the ankle on my walking through a patch of dumbcane that had recently been cut. On several occasions I applied fresh latex to my wrist with no problem.” (CRC).
digitalis lanata
digoxin
Not covered (AHP). Should be classified as a drug only, requiring registration and prescription (AEH; JAD). Why repeat; use with arrhythmogenic drugs (methylxanthines, phosphodiesterase inhibitors (including, I suppose, Viagra), quinidine, sympathomimetics) increases risk of arrhythmia (PH2). Long-term dosage is potentially gynecomastic. Overdoses may cause anorexia, confusion, depression, diarrhea, gastric hypertonia, hallucination, headache, psychosis, stupor, tachycardia, and vomiting. Lethal doses (2–3 g leaf in humans) induce asphyxiation or heart failure (PH2). Both the leaf and pure glycosides are contraindicated in carotid sinus syndrome, first and second degree AV-block, hypercalcemia, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, hypokalemia, thoracic aortic aneurism, ventricular tachycardia, or WPW Syndrome (PH2).
Prescription only (JAD). Rapid digitalization dose 0.75 mg digoxin; maintenance dose 0.25–0.75 mg/day orl human (WOI).
digitalis purpurea
dionaea muscipula
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Venus Flytrap) — Not covered (AHP; KOM).
50–60 drops fresh plant juice, use 5 ×/day (PH2).
dionaea muscipula j. ellis
dioscorea batatas
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Cinnamon-Vine) — Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). None found.
Dosages (Cinnamon-Vine) — None found.
dioscorea bulbifera
6–12 g powdered tuber (KAP).
dioscorea composita
Diosgenin
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). “Tubers are bitter and toxic. Steroidal drugs may produce serious side effects in the long run” (CRC).
dioscorea dregeana
dioscorea villosa
saponins, dioscorin, diosgenin, progesterone, testosterone, steroids, corticosteroids
Class 1. Large doses of tincture are emetic (AHP). While the medicinal yams may be so rich in saponins as to be distasteful, overconsumption is not to be recommended. Reichert (1996) reports GI distress in volunteers taking high doses of wild yam, after saying that the investigators (Araghiniknam et al, 1996) he was reviewing “noted no adverse effects.” Gruenwald warns that overdoses could lead to picrotoxin-like poisonings due to dioscorin (PHR). Diosgenin may reduce antiinflammatory effects of indomethacin (PH2). May be additively estrogenic with true estrogen (PH2). Use may be inappropriate in hormonal disorders (WAM). Use during pregnancy not advised (WAM). Limit children’s use to 1 week (WAM). Starter material for progesterone, testosterone, and other steroids and corticosteroids.
250–500 mg root/day (APA); 2–4 g powdered root (HHB); 40–400 mg powdered root (MAD); 1–2 tsp fresh root (PED); 2–4 g dry root (PED); 3 g dry root:15 ml alcohol/15 ml water (PED); 2–3 ml root tincture 3–4 ×/day (SKY); 0.5 tsp root tincture 2 ×/day (APA); 20–60 drops root tincture (FEL); 2–4 ml liquid root extract/day (APA); 2 (505 mg) capsules/day; 1 (505 mg) StX capsule/day (JAD); 2–4 fluid oz decoction.
dipsacus fullonum
Not covered (AHP; KOM). None reported at designated dosages (not given) (PH2).
dipteryx odorata
Class 3 (AHP). Not covered (CAN; KOM). None at proper dosage (PH2). 150 g tonka beans, cf ~4 g coumarin, might induce headache, nausea, stupor, and vomiting (PH2). Rats and dogs fed coumarin develop liver damage, retarded growth, and testicular atrophy. In large doses, fluid extracts of tonka beans are reportedly cardioparalytic (APA). The reddish sawdust once caused a workman’s hair, when wetted, to turn bright green (CRC). Coumarin can cause severe liver damage “which is why the FDA banned the use of the beans as a flavoring agent” (APA). Narcotic, the fluid extract can paralyze the heart if infused in large doses. Respectable scientists question that coumarin, in reasonable doses, can harm humans with normal liver function. Coumarin may possibly cause bleeding incidents, but not like coumadin. Not being exactly exact, APA leads us to a half-coumadinized conclusion: “You may recognize the name coumarin in relation to the common anticoagulant warfarin, sold as Coumadin” (APA). My understanding is that T coumadin is dicumarol, much more serious than coumarin itself. Coumarin itself (1,2-benzopyrone) has long-established efficacy in slow-onset, long-term reduction of lymphedema in humans, as confirmed in recent double-blind trials against elephantiasis and postmastectomy swelling of the arm. The mechanism of action is uncertain, but may involve macrophage-induced proteolysis of edema protein. However, coumarin has low absolute bioavailability in humans (<5%), due to extensive first-pass hepatic conversion to 7-hydroxycoumarin followed by glucuronidation. It may, therefore, be a prodrug (Hoult and Paya Gen Pharmacol 1996; Jun; 27(4):713–22).
Should not be used medicinally (APA).
dipteryx odorata (aubl.) willd.
dorema ammoniacum
Not covered (AHP). Emmenagogue folklore may contraindicate in pregnancy (PH2); folklore said to induce visual disturbances such as glaucoma (PH2). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
300–1000 mg ammoniacum (powdered gum resin) (PNC).
dorstenia contrayerba
Furanocoumarins
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) Furanocoumarins may trigger phototoxicity.
Decoct 8 g in 180 cc sweetened water (take 2 tbsp every other hour) (JFM).
drimys winteri
Not covered (AHP; KOM). None reported (PH2).
Steep 1 leaf in a cup boiling water 5 minutes, sweeten to taste (MPG).
drosera ramentacea
Not covered (AHP). None (KOM; PH2). Some species are endangered. | Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Sundew) — Not covered (AHP). None (KOM; PH2). Some species are endangered.
Steep 1–2 drug 10 minutes in 1 cup boiled water 3–4 ×/day (PH2). | Dosages (Sundew) — Steep 1–2 drug 10 minutes in 1 cup boiled water 3–4 ×/day (PH2).
drosera rotundifolia
Plumbagin
Class 2b, 2c (AHP; CAN). No contraindications documented. None reported (KOM; PIP). Plumbagin may be irritant (CAN). Plumbagin is immunostimulating in small doses, antibacterial, antifungal, antileishmanic, and antiviral as well as cytotoxic in large doses (PNC).
1–2 g dry leaf as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5–2 ml liquid leaf extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5–1.0 ml herb tincture (1:5 in 60% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 3 g/day (KOM; PIP); steep 1–2 drug 10 min. in 1 cup boiled water, 3–4 ×/day (PH2).
dryas octopetala
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
dryopteris filix-mas
Class 2a, 2b, 2c, 3. Canadians do not allow its use as a nonmedicinal ingredient for oral use products (AHP). In too-large doses, an irritant poison, causing muscular weakness and coma, particularly injurious to eyesight, even causing blindness. Other symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, vertigo, delirium, tremors, convulsion, and cardiac or respiratory failure. Allergenic in some and can be fatally poisonous if misused. It should be used only by prescription from a doctor, and I doubt many doctors will prescribe it (CRC). Contraindicated in anemia, cardiopathy, diabetes, hepatosis, and nephrosis (PH2).
1–10 g (PNC); 6–8 g for adults, 4–6 g for children but may be toxic (PHR); 3–6 ml plant extract (PNC).
duboisia myoporoides
“Narcotic stimulant, secondarily a hallucinogen. Although the poisoned dreams of pituri represent a flirtation with death, they are preferred to the sting of harsh reality” (CRC). See belladonna alkaloid warnings and activities.
duranta erecta
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). “Berries contain a saponin, causing drowsiness, fever, nausea, vomiting, and convulsion.” Children have died after ingesting berries. “Symptoms include sleepiness, hyperthermia, dilated pupils, rapid pulse, swelling of lips and eyelids, and convulsions” (CRC).
echinacea
echinacoside, pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), isotussilagine, tussilagine, alkalies, cichoric acid, echinosides, glycoproteins, polysaccharides, Arabinogalactan
Class 1 (AHP). I don’t worry about levels of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) as low as 60 ppm; isotussilagine and tussilagine have been reported at levels of up to 60 ppm in pallid and purple coneflower (these PAs are unlikely to cause any liver damage). Commission E reports contraindications: progressive systemic diseases (e.g., AIDS, collagenosis, HIV, leucopathy, leukosis, multiple sclerosis, tuberculosis, and other autoimmune diseases) (KOM). No side effects or interactions with other drugs reported (KOM). But, “There are no contraindications or adverse effects reported for echinacea products taken orally” (KOM, p. 61). People with asthma, eczema, or hay fever may prove allergic to Echinacea (WAM). Should not be used for more than 2–8 weeks, according to many authors. Other sources report contraindications: inclination to hypersensitivity, pregnancy; adverse effects: metabolic worsening in diabetic patients, dose-dependent chills, fever, nausea, vomiting, acute allergic reactions (AHP; Commission E). O’Brien contraindicates for autoimmune disorders (e.g., Hashimoto’s thyroidosis, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus). According to Parnham (1996), doses 1000 times greater than normally used may be immuno-
1–2 tbsp fresh root (PED); 3 g dry root (PED); 3 g dry root:15 ml alcohol/15 mg water (PED); 2 tsp root/cup water to 3 ×/day (APA); 1–2 g root as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.25–1 ml liquid root extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 10–30 drops root tincture 3 ×/day; 1–2 droppers tincture (APA); 1–2 ml herb tincture (1:5 in 45% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 300–400 mg solid extract (APA); 2 (500 mg) capsules (StX to contain 125 mg certified potency Echinacea angustifolia root extract with at least 3.2–4.8% echinacoside, in a base of Parthenium integrifolium root, E. angustifolia root, and E. purpurea root) 2–3 ×/day (NH); 2–3 (420 mg) capsules 2–3 ×/day.
echinacea spp.
echinopsis pachanoi (britton & rose) friedrich & g. d. rowley
eclipta prostrata
nicotine
May contain 780 ppm nicotine (WOI).
2–8 ml leaf juice (KAP); 4–12 ml leaf tea (KAP); 3–6 g powdered herb (KAP).
elaeophorbia drupifera
Classed as a narcotic hallucinogen (?). “The caustic latex can cause permanent blindness if introduced into the eyes” (CRC).
elettaria cardamomum
eleutherococcus senticosus
Eleutheranes A-G
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports contraindications for high blood pressure (AEH). “No known side effects or drug-drug interactions” (SHT). Though generally regarded as safe by non-FDA types, use is not recommended “for patients in febrile states, hypertonic crisis, or myocardial infarction” (LRNP, May 1988). CAN cautions against use in patients with mastalgia, vaginal bleeding, and insomnia, and suggests it be avoided by patients with hyperkinesis, hysteria, mania, schizophrenia, and by those who are nervous or tense. Should not be taken with stimulants, including coffee, antipsychotic drugs, or during treatment with hormones (CAN). May elevate serum levels of digoxin (PH2). May enhance effects of antiaggregant and antidiabetic drugs (PH2). Russians suggest that users abstain from alcohol, bitter and spicy foods, and sex. In Russia, it is even suggested that healthy people under 40 years should not take ginseng, but that middle-aged people can take small doses on a regular basis (CAN). Because of hormonal activity, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). Versus, “It can be used during pregnancy and lactation” (SKY). And the moms, White and Mavor say, “Many herbalists err on the side of caution and say to avoid it during pregnancy. Limit children’s use to two weeks, then take a one week break” (WAM). Commission E suggests limiting use to only 1–3 months (AHP). Use should be restricted to 3 months. (SHT). Lininger et al. (1998) report rare transient diarrhea and insomnia when taken too close to bedtime.
250–500 mg herb 1–2 ×/day (APA); 0.6–3 g root/day for 1 month (CAN); 4.5–27 g root (FAY); 2–3 g root (KOM; PHR); 1–4 g root/day (MAB); 1–2 tsp fresh root (PED); 0.5–1 g dry root (PED); 1 g dry root:5 ml alcohol/5 ml water (PED); 2–8 ml root extract (1:2) (MAB); 2–16 ml alcoholic root extract 1–3 ×/day up to 60 days (CAN); 0.5–6 ml alcoholic root extract 1–3 ×/day up to 35 days (CAN); 1–2 droppers herb tincture 2–3 ×/day (APA). | Commission E suggests limiting use to only 1–3 months (AHP). Use should be restricted to 3 months. (SHT).
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
8 g bark in 1.25 liters water boiled down to 0.25 liter water, 2–4 glasses/day (HH2); 50 g bark in 2 liters water (HH2 q.v. for details); 20 g bark in decoction (MAD); 2 tsp ground bark/cup tea, 2–3 ×/day (PH2).
elytrigia repens
Class 1, 2b, 2c (AHP). “In view of its reputed diuretic action, excessive or prolonged use of couchgrass should be avoided since this may result in hypokalemia. The use of couchgrass during pregnancy and lactation should be avoided.” (AHP). Irrigation therapy contraindicated in edema due to cardiac or renal insufficiency (KOM). Varro Tyler cautioned against self-medication for BPH. Whenever treating BPH, a practitioner should be involved. Base-line levels of PSA should be established before considering an herbal treatment (JAD).
2–3 tsp chopped rhizome/cup water to 4 ×/day (APA; WIC); 4–8 g rhizome as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 5–15 ml rhizome tincture (1:5 in 40% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 4–8 ml liquid rhizome extract (PNC); 4–8 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
ascorbic acid, pectin, ellagic acid, gallic acid
Class 1; Fruit consumed as food (AHP). Rich source of ascorbic acid (juice has 20 times ascorbic acid more than orange juice). Also rich in pectin. Ellagic and gallic acids present (WOI). Alcoholic extract antibacterial and antiviral.
Eat as fruit or fruit juice; 2–8 g fruit (HH3).
ephedra
ephedrine, L-ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, total alkaloid
Class 2b, 2c, 2d. Contraindicated in anorexia, anxiety, bulimia, cerebral perfusion, diabetes, glaucoma, high blood pressure, pheochromocytoma, prostatadenoma, restlessness, and thyrotoxicosis (KOM; PH2; SHT; SKY). Thyroid stimulant, not recommended for long-term use. The herb and/or its ephedrine can cause addiction, anxiety, anorexia, cardiac arrest, cardiac arrhythmia, dizziness, dysuria, flushing, headache, high blood pressure, insomnia, irritability, nausea, nervousness, palpitations, restlessness, tachycardia, uterocontraction, vomiting, and xerostomia (KOM; PH2; SHT; SKY). Commission E reports contraindications, adverse effects, and interactions of the major alkaloid, ephedrine. Not to be used for prolonged period. Not to be taken with MAOIs. May potentiate MAOIs (AHP). Ephedra-based products should be avoided during pregnancy and lactation, and used with caution in children <6 years old (SKY). More than 100 g herb (~ = 1–2 g L-ephedrine) can be lethally toxic in humans. “Over-the-counter drugs containing ephedrine can be safely used by adults at a dose of 12.5–25 mg every four hours. Adults should take no more than 150 mg every twenty-four hours” (SKY). A 60 mg dose of pseudoephedrine every six hours is usually recommended. (Lininger et al., 1998). Ephedrine-containing substances have been listed as addictive by the International Olympic Committee (KOM). The LD50 of ephedrine is reported at 500 mg/kg orl man (PED), making it about half as toxic as caffeine.
2 g/240 ml water providing 15–30 mg ephedrine (APA); herb equivalent to 15–30 mg total alkaloid, calculated as ephedrine (KOM); 2–4 tbsp fresh herb (PED); 3–6 g dry herb (PED); 4.5 g dry herb:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 1–4 g herb/cup water, to 3 ×/day (PH2); 15–30 mg total alkaloid per dose, to 120 mg/day; child’s single dose 0.5 mg/kg (PH2); 1–4 g powdered stem (PNC); 1–3 ml liquid extract (PNC); 1–4 ml tincture 3 ×/day (SKY). Surprisingly, as the FDA considers withdrawing ephedra, Commission E approved ma huang for, “Diseases of the respiratory tract with mild bronchospasms in adults,” single dosages of herb equivalent to 15–30 mg total alkaloid, not to exceed 300 mg alkaloid a day, and children over age six years, 0.5 mg total alkaloid/kg body weight) (KOM). “Over-the-counter drugs containing ephedrine can be safely used by adults at a dose of 12.5–25 mg every four hours. Adults should take no more than 150 mg every twenty-four hours” (SKY). A 60 mg dose of pseudoephedrine every six hours is usually recommended. (Lininger et al., 1998).
ephedra gerardiana
“Classified by the FDA as an Herb of Undefined Safety.” “Used as an antisyphilitic. Also used as an astringent. A Chinese species, Ephedra sinica, called ‘ma-huang’ in China, contains the alkaloid ephedrine, a powerful decongestant.” In large doses, ephedrine causes headache, indigestion, nervousness, flushing, numbing of the extremities, nausea, tingling, palpitations, and vertigo. Contact dermatosis may occur at onset of application or as much as 2 years later. (CRC).
ephedra nevadensis
Class 1 (AHP).
(Based on recommendations for the alkaloid rich ma huang) 1–4 g powdered stem (PNC).
ephedra spp.
epigaea repens
Class 1 (AHP). None recorded for proper doses (not given) (PH2). Nausea and vomiting may occur in sensitive children. Cachexia, hair depigmentation, hemolytic anemia, and liver damage are possible with long-term use (PH2). Overdosage could cause urethral and bladder inflammation, strangury, and hematuria (PH2).
epigaea repens l.
epilobium angustifolium
Myricetin 3-O-beta-D-glucuronide
Class 1 (AHP). Not recorded (PHR).
Herb taken as a tea (FAD).
epimedium spp.
Class 2d. Not for long term use; possibly causing dizziness, dry mouth, nosebleed, thirst, and vomiting (AHP; AKT). In very large doses may cause respiratory arrest and hyperreflexia, to the point of mild spasms (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PH2). Contraindicated when there is a tendency toward hypersexuality and wet dreams (Michael Tierra). LD50 total flavonoids 2850–3230 ipr rat (LAF).
3–12 g shoots/day, or 1–3 g shoots concentrated 4:1 powder. Food farmacy (according to Tanaka, 1976), “young plants and young leaves are parboiled, steeped, and then eaten in soups, cooked or oil roasted. Plants are also dipped into liquor.”
equisetum arvense
thiaminase enzyme, hemostatic substance, bioflavonoids, equisetonine, EO, silicon, silica
Class 2d. Contraindicated in cardiopathy or nephrosis. Powdered herb not recommended for children or long-term use. Toxicity is reportedly similar to nicotine poisoning in children who have chewed the stem (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Despite reported benefits of silicon, it seems prudent that infants, young children, and pregnant women not ingest horsetail for extended periods, unless its thiaminase enzyme has been deactivated (Reichert, 1994). Not for use during pregnancy, or with kidney or heart disease (WAM). Raw use depletes thiamine (vitamin B1). Should not be used more than 7 days (WAM). Said to induce seborrheic dermatosis (Reichert, 1994). There’s an inconsistency in an AHP quote, “daily use of the herb should not exceed 2.0 grams ... doses in excess of 5.0 grams of the herb powder should be taken during meals.” Commission E lists no known contraindications, drug interactions, or side effects (KOM; PIP) at least for oral dosage (PIP). The Herbal PDR says a physician should be consulted when used as a bath additive in cases of major skin lesions, major feverish and infectious diseases, cardiac insufficiency, and hyperotonia (PHR). Beware of related species with toxic alkaloids (SKY). The hemostatic substance is active orally, but neither hypertensive, nor hypotensive, nor a vasoconstrictor (PNC). Bioflavonoids may cause diuresis (SKY). “Silicon content is said to exert a connective tissue-strengthening and antiarthritic action” (SKY). Surprising to me, it has been approved by Commission E for treatment of posttraumatic and static edema, irrigation therapy for bacterial and inflammatory diseases of the lower urinary tract and renal gravel (KOM), and for burns, kidney and bladder stones, UTIs, and wounds (PHR). Equisetonine is weakly hemolytic (HHB). EO bactericidal against Mycobacteria, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus (HHB). Silica strengthens bones, hair, and nails (WAF).
2–4 tbsp (2–4 g) fresh herb (APA; PED); 1–4 g herb/cup water (SKY; WIC); 3–6 g dry herb (PED); 4.5 g dry herb:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 1.5 g/cup tea (HHB); 6 g/day (KOM; PH2; SHT); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PNC); 2–6 ml tincture/day (SKY); 3 (~350 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (APA); 3 (355 mg) capsules 3 ×/day; 1 (505 mg) StX 2 ×/day.
equisetum hyemale
aconitic acid
“Classified by the FDA as an Herb of Undefined Safety: Infusion of whole plants used sometimes in dropsical and renal diseases but the diuretic action is very feeble. Cattle overdosed for diuresis have voided blood. Said to have caused poisoning in California. Horsetails are said to develop a powerful nerve poison, aconitic acid. Sheep and cattle are poisoned by grazing the fresh plant; horses, usually by eating the dried plant in hay. It produces, especially when dried, sudden symptoms of weakness S and loss of appetite followed, after a few weeks, by loss of muscular control, excitement, and falling, and in acute cases, labored respiration, rapid, weak pulse, diarrhea, convulsions, coma, and death” (CRC).
eriodictyon californicum
EO
Class 1 (AHP). “No reports of toxicity either topically or internally have been reported in the scientific literature” (PED). None reported (PHR; PH2). EO is responsible for therapeutic actions (PED).
1–2 tsp fresh leaf (PED); 1–2 g dry leaf (PED); 1 g dry leaf:5 ml alcohol/5 ml water (PED); 10–20 drops leaf extract/day (APA); 1 tbsp herb/glass warm water 1 ×/day (APA); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC).
eryngium campestre
Class 1 for Eryngo (E. maritinum, E, planum, and E. yuccifolium as eryngo or sea holly) (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1 tsp root/cup, 3–4 cups/day (PH2); root boiled in red wine with honey for cancer (JLH).
eryngium campestre l.
eryngium foetidum
Not covered (AHP). The emmenagogue folklore might suggest caution for use, if at all, by pregnant women.
Take juice of leaves before meals for anorexia (JFM); infuse root in rum or wine as a vermifuge (JFM).
erysimum cheiri
cheiroside-A, cheirotoxin
Not covered (AHP; KOM). None at proper dosage (PH2). Digitalic poisoning in serious overdoses. Cheiroside-A and cheirotoxin are cardioactive and digitalic (HHB).
2–3 g flower/100 ml water for tea, take 3–4 cups a day (PH2).
erysimum cheiri (l.) crantz
erysimum diffusum
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
Single dose, 3.3 mg, cardioactive glycosides; maximum daily dose, 6.6 mg (HHB).
erythrina fusca
erythralin, erysodine, erysonine, erysothiopine, erysothiovine, erysovine
“Seeds contain the alkaloid erythralin. Erysodine, erysonine, erysopine, erysothiopine, erysothiovine, erysovine, and erythraline are also reported. Those species containing indoles and isoquinolines are classed as narcotics, capable of inducing hallucinogenic stupor” (CRC).
erythronium americanum
Not covered (AHP). Strongly sensitizing, reciprocal reactions with alstroemeria, bomarea, fritillaria, lily, trout lily, tulip (PH2).
erythronium americanum ker gawl
erythrophleum suaveolens
erythrophleum alkaloids, erythrophleine, cassaidine, homophleine
“Highly toxic; in humans leading to a primary slowing of the heart followed by acceleration, dyspnea with labored respiration, and death due to respiratory arrest. Workers may develop a dermatosis from handling the wood, tall, fair men being more susceptible than short, dark ones. The erythrophleum alkaloids are said to be powerfully analgesic to the mucosa and generally more potent than cocaine. With a marked stimulant effect on isolated rabbit uterus, erythrophleine has been suggested as a devitalizing agent in dentistry. Cassaidine has convulsant activity. Erythrophleine and homophleine have some degree of hemolytic activity. All the alkaloids are said to be strongly antiseptic, especially cassaidine” (CRC).
erythroxylum coca
Not covered (AHP). Classified as a drug, which, normally, must be registered as a pharmaceutical specialty (AEH). Embryotoxic, cocaine passes into the fetus and mother’s milk (PHR). In high doses it may paralyze motor neuron fibers (PH2).
Individual dose, 3 g dry leaf (HHB). Maximum individual dose 30 mg cocaine (HHB).
eschscholzia californica
Californidine, Cryptopine
Class 2b (AHP). Commission E reports aerial parts not permitted for therapeutic use. Use during pregnancy should be avoided as the major alkaloid cryptopine shows a stimulating effect on guinea pig uterus in vitro (AEH). Do not use during pregnancy; do not use with MAOI antidepressants (WAM).
1–2 ml liquid extract (PHR); 2–3 g in tea, to 4 cups/day (AHP); 1 tsp dry root and/or herb/cup water 2–3 ×/day; 30–40 drops tincture 2–3 ×/day (WAF).
quercitrin, hyperoside, Euglobulin, Cineole
Class 2d. Contraindicated in inflammatory diseases of the bile duct, GI tract, and liver. Do not use near nostrils of infants (AHP). CAN cautions that the oil can cause nausea and vomiting, and should not be taken internally during pregnancy or lactation. “Undiluted eucalyptus oil is toxic and should not be taken internally unless suitably diluted. A dose of 3.5 ml has proved fatal.” (CAN) Symptoms of poisoning include abdominal pain, bronchospasm, convulsions, cyanosis, delirium, dizziness, epigastric burning, myosis, muscular weakness, respiratory problems, spontaneous vomiting, tachypnea with severe respiratory depression, and a feeling of suffocation. May interfere with hypoglycemic therapy (CAN). Eucalyptus oil causes induction of the foreign-substance degrading enzyme system in the liver. This may weaken and/or shorten the activity of other medicinal agents; may cause diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting (PIP). CNS effects include diminution or loss of reflexes and depression of consciousness, possibly progressing to coma. Fatalities have been reported in adults ingesting as little as 4–5 ml eucalyptus oil; 30 ml will usually cause death (AEH1).
1–2 tsp chopped leaf/cup water (APA); 4–6 g leaf/day (KOM; PIP); 4–16 g leaf/day (PHR); 300–600 mg EO (PHR); 1–2 drops EO/cup water; 0.05–0.2 ml EO (CAN; PNC); 0.05–0.2 ml eucalyptol (cineole) (CAN); 2–4 g fluid extract (CAN); single dose 2 g (HHB); 3–9 g tincture (KOM); 3–4 g tincture/day (PHR); steep 8–10 g dry leaf/liter water or 30–40 g fresh leaf, inhale the steam (TRA).
eucalyptus globulus
eucommia ulmoides
Quercetin, asperulosidic acid, deacetyl asperulosidic acid, asperuloside, geniposidic acid, geniposide, p-trans-coumaric acid pyrogallol, protocatechuic acid
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PH2).
6–15 g bark, in decoction, pill, powder, or tincture (FAY); 30 drops 10% tincture 3 ×/day, ca 9 months, for high blood pressure (FAY).
eugenia uniflora
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
Fruit is a food farmacy?
euonymus atropurpureus
Class 3 (AHP). Fruit, seeds, and bark are considered poisonous (FAD). 36 berries of E. europaeus reportedly are enough to kill a person (PH2). To treat poisonings, see PH2. Reports of caffeine and theobromine (PH2) in European wahoo need confirmation.
0.6–2.6 ml bark tincture (PNC); 4–16 ml bark elixir (with pulsatilla) (PNC).
euonymus atropurpureus jacq.
eupatorium cannabinum
Eupatorin cytotoxic, immunostimulant, but many PAs hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic (FNF).
eupatorium perfoliatum
Sesquiterpene lactones, Polysaccharide components, Heteroxylan polysaccharides, Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
Class 4. Large doses are laxative and emetic (AHP). Classified as a drug, which must normally be registered as a pharmaceutical (AEH). Sesquiterpene lactones are cytotoxic and can cause dermatosis (CAN). Because of the cytotoxic constituents in this and related species, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). Do not use during pregnancy (WAM). Should not be used by children under 1 year of age (WAM). Not for use more than 7 days (WAM). May cause diarrhea or nausea in large doses (WAM). In the book Adverse Effects of Herbal Drugs (De Smet et al., 1993), we read that all Eupatorium species containing pyrrolizidine alkaloids are, in principle, hazardous for mankind. “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1–2 tsp chopped leaf/cup water, up to 3 ×/day; 0.5–1 tsp up to 3 ×/day (APA); 1–2 g as tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 tsp fresh herb (PED); 1–2 g dry herb (PED); 1.5 g dry herb: 7 ml alcohol/8 ml water (PED); 0.5–1 g powdered herb (PNC); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 0.3–0.5 g solid herb extract (PNC); 1–2 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 25% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–4 ml tincture (1:5 in 45% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
eupatorium purpureum
Class 2a, 2b, 2c, 2d. Long-term use discouraged (AHP). Effective July 1996, the AHP Board of Trustees recommends that all products with botanical ingredient(s) containing toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids, including Borago officinalis, display the following cautionary statement on the label, “For external use only. Do not apply to broken or abraded skin. Do not use when nursing” (AHP). Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) have genotoxic, carcinogenic, and hepatotoxic activity (CAN). Because of the PAs, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Animal studies document placental transfer and secretion into breast milk of unsaturated PAs (CAN).
2–4 g root, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml liquid herbal extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 ml herbal tincture (1:5 in 40% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
euphorbia
Because of its effect on smooth muscle activity, in vitro, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN).
0.12–0.3 ml liquid extract (CAN); 120–300 mg herb as tea (CAN); 0.6–2 ml herb tincture (CAN); 28–56 ml plant decoction (KAP); 14–28 ml plant tea (KAP).
euphorbia cyparissias
Ingenan esters
Allergenic (1; PH2); Carcinogenic (1; PH2); Diuretic (f; PH2); Immunostimulant (1; PH2); Irritant (1; PH2); Laxative (1; PH2); Toxic (1; PH2). | Not covered (AHP). Canadian regulations do not allow euphorbias in food (HHB). I too, think most of them are too dangerous to take. Ingenan esters are cocarcinogenic and proflammatory. Milk (“chyle” in PH2) can cause blisters, burns, itch, and reddening (PH2).
Avoid!
euphorbia lathyris
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR).
euphorbia pulcherrima
euphorbia resinifera
Not covered (AHP). Topically very irritating. Ingestion can cause death, burning gastrosis, colic, diarrhea, nephrosis, salivation (PH2).
Don’t take it (JAD).
euphorbia tirucalli
euphrasia spp.
Class 1 (AHP). None known (WAM). 10–60 drops of tincture may cause constipation, cough, diaphoresis, dyspnea, headache,
Use only sterilized solutions for the eyes (APA); 2–4 g herb as tea 3 ×/day (CAN; SKY); 3 tbsp herb/2 cups water (HHB); 0.25–0.5 cup fresh herb (PED); 6–12 g dry herb (PED); 9 g dry herb:45 ml alcohol/45 ml water (PED); 2–3 g/cup 3–4 ×/day (PH2); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–6 ml herb tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PNC).
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Contraindicated in biliary calculi, cholecocystosis, hepatosis, and occlusion of bile ducts. No drug-drug interactions or side effects noted (KOM; PIP). Use only in consultation with a physician (KOM). Do not place mint oils on the face of infants (KOM). Sensitive persons may experience gastric distress (KOM). Although Commission E approves it for gallbladder disorders, it is contraindicated for inflammation of the gallbladder. “Volatile oils containing menthol can worsen the spasms of bronchial asthma” (PH2).
2–8 drops EO/day (KOM; PH2; PIP); 1–2 drops rubbed on head for headache (PH2); 10–12 drops EO applied to compress over heart 10–15 minutes (PH2); 2 drops EO added to water or tea and drunk (PH2).
pulegone, menthofuran
Class 2b. Emmenagogue and uterotonic (AHP). In Canada, allowed in food or beverage only if pulegone-free (AHP). CAN cautions that pulegone in the volatile oil can be irritant, hepatotoxic, and nephrotoxic. Symptoms following EO ingestion include abdominal pain, agitation, diarrhea, high blood pressure, lethargy, nausea, pyrexia, and generalized urticaria. Abortifacient doses are hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic. Because of pulegone’s abortifacient activity, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. “Both the internal and external use of pennyroyal oil has been contraindicated” (CAN). Death reported following ingestion of 15 ml (ca. 1/2 oz) EO, after 2-week consumption of alcoholic extract (with pulegone metabolites in the liver) (AHP). Playing it safe, I like to remind everyone that pregnant women are advised against taking (any medicine) this herb or others because the herbs reportedly have some abortifacient properties. Further, pulegone, the active compound, is reportedly absorbed through the skin and may be carcinogenic (I think the warning is overrated but would prefer to err on the side of caution). Pulegone is oxidized by hepatic cytochrome P-450 to the hepatotoxic compound, menthofuran. Pulegone or a metabolite is also responsible for neurotoxicity and destruction of bronchiolar epithelial cells. It extensively depletes glutathione in the liver. Hepatic toxicity from overdoses has been prevented with acetylcysteine administered promptly. Rats at 80 to 160 mg/kg/day develop encephalopathies. Not to be toyed with. Pennyroyal oil is toxic and potentially fatal if ingested. Symptoms include abdominal cramps, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, rash, dizziness, and alternating lethargy and agitation, leading to kidney failure, massive hepatic necrosis, and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Five grams of pennyroyal oil can cause collapse; 11.69 g abortion, collapse, salivation, and unconsciousness. Serious toxicity with the tea has not been reported. CNS symptoms from ingesting pennyroyal-containing preparations include lethargy, agitation, dizziness, sometimes leading to seizures and auditory and visual hallucinations. GI effects include nausea, vomiting, burning in the throat, abdominal pain, and diarrhea (AEH1). EO LD50 = 400 mg/kg orl rat (CAN), LD50 = 4200 mg/kg der rbt (CAN).
, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2 tsp (2 g) herb in hot tea (HHB; MAD); 1–4 ml liquid herbal extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5–5 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC); 0.6–1.2 ml spirit of pulegium (PNC); 0.05–2 ml EO (I’d hesitate to suggest 0.2 ml, much less 2 ml; I think this is a frequent error in PNC) (PNC).
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Warning: ALMOST all plant parts (except possibly the red aril) of this and other yews contain toxic components and are considered potentially fatally poisonous (FAD). 50–100 g needles fresh weight (0.25–0.5 cup) could be fatally toxic, via asphyxiation and diastolic cardiac arrest; symptoms may include cardiac abnormalities, bradycardia, colic, cramps, dyspnea, gastrosis, headache, hypotension, mydriasis, queasiness, ventricular arrhythmia, vertigo, and vomiting (BRU; MAD; HH2; PH2).
Class 2d (AHP). Do not exceed recommended dose (3–9 g/day as tea) (AHP). Not covered (BGB; PH2). “Destroys the vital fluids and impairs vision” (LMP).
3–9 g/day as tea (AHP); 1–3 g fruit in decoction (HHB).
Class 1 (AHP). None known (WAM). 10–60 drops of tincture may cause constipation, cough, diaphoresis, dyspnea, headache, insomnia, itch, lacrimation, mental confusion, nausea, photophobia, polyuria, sneezing, toothache, and raised intraocular pressure (CAN). Health risks or side effects following the proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages are not recorded (PH2). Many authors advise against using non-sterile eye drops of any kind. Its safety during pregnancy and lactation has not been proven (SKY).
Use only sterilized solutions for the eyes (APA); 2–4 g herb as tea 3 ×/day (CAN; SKY); 3 tbsp herb/2 cups water (HHB); 0.25–0.5 cup fresh herb (PED); 6–12 g dry herb (PED); 9 g dry herb:45 ml alcohol/45 ml water (PED); 2–3 g/cup 3–4 ×/day (PH2); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–6 ml herb tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PNC).
fagopyrum esculentum
Rutin
Not covered (AHP). None reported when properly administered (PHR). Not covered by AHP or Commission E. Rutin underlies much of the activity. Not covered in most of my books, more food than medicine. But it is clearly a safe food pharmaceutical for most people (note caveats). Intake of large quantities can cause phototoxic doses in grazing animals (PHR). I know one chemist’s wife was almost killed eating noodles in Japan made of buckwheat flour. So some people can have fatally anaphylactic reactions to buckwheat. There are some similarities between the globulins in buckwheat and those in pea and soy. Phototoxic fagopyrine may cause fagopyrism in sheep and swine, inducing cramps, dermatosis, and nausea (HHB).
Taken orally in teas, as an extract (PHR), or eaten as food. I view it as food farmacy. But as with peanuts, some people can be fatally allergic to the plant.
fagus grandifolia
1 oz leaf/quart salt water (FAD).
fallopia japonica
resveratrol, COX-2 inhibitor
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). As the best source of resveratrol, a COX-2 inhibitor, this herb shares many of the activities of the so-called miracle aspirin. See also Fo-Ti, which shares many chemicals with Hu-Zhang.
Having eaten the young shoots, which I consider food farmacy, and would not hesitate myself to take this at levels suggested for Fo Ti: 4–5(–16) g dry root or 8–16 (–40 ml fluid extract).
Tetrandrine
Class 1 (AHP). Canadian regulations do not allow fang ji as a nonmedicinal ingredient in oral use products (AHP); too often adulterated with nephrotoxic species of Aristolochia (AHP).
Tetrandrine is hypotensive at 100 mg 3 ×/day (oral) for a week. That equates to 10–20 g herb/day (KEB).
Unknown ID
Steroid Precursor, niacin, pyridines, pyrroles
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Fenugreek) — Class 2b (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Contraindicated in pregnancy (PH2). Due to its oxytoxic and uterine stimulant actions, in vitro, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Commission E reports no contraindications or interactions for oral use of the seed. Adverse skin reactions to repeated external use (AEH). An idiosyncratic gastroenterosis was fingered on fenugreek in LRNP (July 1987). One woman with micromazia complained of mastogenic activity following ingestion of fenugreek sprouts. May interfere with anticoagulant, blood sugar, hormonal, and/or MAOI therapies. High mucilaginous/fiber content may interfere with absorption of other drugs. Since all herbs, spices, and food plants, like drugs, contain pharmacologically active ingredients, it seems it could go without saying, “the presence of pharmacologically active constituents would suggest that excessive ingestion is inadvisable” (CAN). Alcoholic seed extract LD50 = 5000 mg/kg orl rat; 2000 der rabbit (CAN).
Dosages (Fenugreek) — 1 tbsp mashed seed/8 oz water, up to 3 ×/day as gargle (APA); 1–6 g seed 3 ×/day (CAN); 5–90 g seed/day (SKY); 0.25–0.5 cup seed (PED); 6–12 g dry seed (PED); 50 g powdered seed with 0.25 liter water (HH2); 6.3 g/day (MAD); 1 (620 mg) capsule 2–3 ×/day (NH).
ferula assa-foetida
ferula gummosa
ferula sumbul
Not covered (AHP). None reported at proper dosage (not indicated) (PH2).
0.5–4 ml liquid root extract (PNC); 2–4 ml root tincture (PNC).
ficus carica
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Poultice of dried figs in milk is said to deodorize malignant cancers (KAB).
Food farmacy (JAD); 30 g fig syrup (HH3); steep 2 fruits in wine or booze overnight, then eat on an empty stomach for whooping cough (JFM); boil 3 sun-dried leaves for 15 minutes in 300 g water for diabetes (JFM).
filipendula ulmaria
ALA (alpha-linolenic acid), omega-3 fatty acid, HCN
Class 2d. Contraindicated in bowel obstruction (AHP). May lead to bowel obstruction if fluid intake is inadequate. “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). May adversely affect absorption of drugs (as with any mucilaginous preparation). Commission E reports contraindications: ileus; interactions: reduced absorption of other drugs possible. No adverse effects when used with a sufficient amount of liquid. Other sources report contraindications: intestinal obstruction; patients with inflammatory intestinal diseases should use the seed only in its swollen state. Abuse of high doses may result in electrolyte losses (AEH). Bulking agents should not be taken by those with stenotic lesions of the GI tract. Do not take bulking agents when lying down or at bedtime. Do not use with antiperistaltics (like, e.g., loperamide) (SHT). Do not use seed in patients with diverticulitis (WAM). Under pessimal conditions, 100 g linseed can liberate up to 50 mg HCN, enough to bring about symptoms of poisoning. But these conditions, rarely, if ever are maintained. Most HCN is metabolized via the enzyme rhodanase, which can convert 30–60 mg HCN per hour into the relatively toxic thiocyanate. Even doses of 300 g of ground linseed evoked no symptoms of poisoning in a volunteer. Single doses of 100 g reported to not cause significant rise in blood HCN and thiocyanate levels. Taking 15 g linseed thrice daily for 3 to 4 weeks raised thiocyanate levels in blood and urine (Bisset, 1994). Don’t confuse flaxseed oil with more poisonous denatured linseed oil (WAM).
1 (1300 mg) StX for 740 mg ALA, softgel (APA); 1 tbsp whole or crushed (not ground) seed/150 ml liquid 2–3 ×/day (APA; PH2; PIP); 1 oz seed/1 quart water at boiling point (FEL); 35–50 g crushed seed/day for hypercholesterolemia (PH2); 1–2 tbsp flaxseed oil/day as antiaggregant (PH2).
foeniculum vulgare
anethole, estragole
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports no contraindications for herbal teas (and other preparations providing similar doses of EO), but other dosage forms (e.g., the EO) should be avoided during pregnancy. The EO should also be avoided in infants and small children (AEH). Nursing mothers taking anise and/or fennel tea to stimulate lactation exhibited temporary CNS disturbances, emesis, lethargy, poor suckling, restlessness, and torpor in the newborn (15–20 days old), possibly due to anethole in the milk (infants were healthy at 6-month follow-up) (Acta Pediatrica 83: 683; 1994). To be avoided by women who are pregnant, lactating, or with an estrogen-dependent cancer (SKY). Adverse effects: isolated cases of allergic reactions of skin and lungs (AEH). Fennel represents a low allergenic risk. A case of asthma with atopic disposition caused by | Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Fennel) — Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports no contraindications for herbal teas (and other preparations providing similar doses of EO), but other dosage forms (e.g., the EO) should be avoided during pregnancy. The EO should also be avoided in infants and small children (AEH). Nursing mothers taking anise and/or fennel tea to stimulate lactation exhibited temporary CNS disturbances, emesis, lethargy, poor suckling, restlessness, and torpor in the newborn (15–20 days old), possibly due to anethole in the milk (infants were healthy at 6-month follow-up) (Acta Pediatrica 83: 683; 1994). To be avoided by women who are pregnant, lactating, or with an estrogen-dependent cancer (SKY). Adverse effects: isolated cases of allergic reactions of skin and lungs (AEH). Fennel represents a low allergenic risk. A case of asthma with atopic disposition caused by fennel has been reported (AEH). Seeds not to be long taken at rate of 6 g seed/day (Commission E), perhaps due to estrogenic anethole and carcinogenic estragole. We might extend to all apiaceous oils Bisset’s comments on celery seed oil, “The drug is contraindicated in inflammation of the kidneys,” since apiaceous EOs may increase the inflammation as a result of epithelial irritation (BIS). Extracts of fennel can induce estrus and cause growth of mammary glands (MAB). Moderate doses of an acetone extract increased the weight of the mammary glands in rats (MAB). LD50 of EO 3120 = 4500 ml/kg orally (MAB); LD50 anethole 2090 mg/kg orl rat (MAB); LD50 fennel seed tincture = >3000 mg/kg orl rat (equivalent to 30,000 seed) (MAB).
900–1800 fruit/day (MAB); 2–6 tsp fresh seed (PED); 1–3 g dry seed (PED); 2 g dry seed:10 ml alcohol/10 ml water (PED); 5–7 g seed/day (PIP); 1/2 tsp seed/cup water 3 ×/day (SKY); 1–2 tsp mashed seed/cup water (APA); 10–40 g powder (KAP); 5–10 ml oil (KAP); 3–6 ml fluid extract (1:2)/day(MAB); 0.5–2 ml liquid seed extract (PNC); 2–4 ml tincture (SKY); 7–14 ml tincture (1:5)/day (MAB); 0.5–1 tsp tincture 3 ×/day (APA); 5–7.5 g compound tincture (PIP); 5–20 drops EO/day (MAB); 0.1–0.6 ml EO (PH2); 0.03–0.2 ml EO (PNC); 10–20 g fennel syrup (PIP); 0.3–1 ml concentrated fennel water (PNC). | Seeds not to be long taken at rate of 6 g seed/day (Commission E)
forsythia suspensa
forsythia suspensa (thunb.) vahl
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Forsythia) — Class 2b (AHP). Emmenagogue and uterotonic (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PH2).
Dosages (Forsythia) — 6–15 g fruit (FAY); 6–9 g stem and/or leaf (FAY).
Emodin
Class 2d. Raw root is laxative; prepared root may cause GI distress; contraindicated with diarrhea (AHP). May cause colic, diarrhea, nausea, numbness of the extremities, and skin rashes (AHP; SKY). Allergic cystosis may result (LAF). Emodin has vasodilator and immunosuppressive effects in test tubes. LD50 of alcoholic percolates 169 to 2700 mg/kg (raw to cured) (LAF).
6–15 g dry root (LAF); 4–5 g dry root or 8–16 ml fluid extract (1:2) (KEB); 0.5–1 dropper concentrated root extract 2–3 ×/day (APA); 3–5 g/cup water 3 ×/day (SKY); 5 (500 mg) tablets 3 ×/day (FAY; SKY); 2–3 (560 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (NH).
fragaria vesca
Class 1 (AHP). The Herbal Desk Reference (PH2) is astute and kind enough to tell us not to take strawberry if one is allergic to strawberry. Shall we make that a universal template and advise allergic people not to take their allergens? Shall we take the McDonald McCopout and remind people not to drink boiling or over-hot beverages, telling our readers to let their hot teas and boiling decoctions cool to a safe temperature before drinking? Ah, this litigious society of ours! Commission E reports leaf not approved for therapeutic use. “A therapeutic application cannot be recommended” (KOM). This is the same Commission E that approves dangerous bittersweet and not-so-dangerous cola and guarana. (JAD). Hypersensitivity reactions are possible, but there is no objection to the use as an admixture to herbal teas (AEH). Has many of the same tannins in the leaf as does tea; is tea (Camellia sinensis) really healthier than blackberry, raspberry, and strawberry leaf tea, or just better promoted and hyped?
Fruits food farmacy (JAD); 1 g leaf/cup tea (HHB).
fragaria virginiana
Class 1 (AHP).
1 tsp chopped leaf/cup water several ×/day (APA).
frangula alnus
hydroxyanthracene derivatives, anthranoid laxatives, anthraquinones, anthrones
Class 2b (AHP). Contraindicated in some types of hemorrhoids and nephropathy (CAN), intestinal obstruction, abdominal pain of unknown causes, any enteritis (appendicitis, colitis, Crohn’s disease, IBS), and menstruation (AHP). Do not use more than 8–10 days (AHP). Not for use in cases of diarrhea or abdominal pain. Discontinue use if diarrhea or watery stools occurs. Consult a health care provider in cases of pregnancy or lactation. Not for long-term use or overdose (AHP). Commission E reports for bark, contraindications, adverse effects, and interactions of anthranoid laxatives (AEH). While widely used, anthranoid-containing laxatives can be habit-forming. Some contain compounds suspected of being cytotoxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, and even tumorigenic; epidemiological studies in Germany reveal that abusers of anthranoid laxatives have a three times higher rate of colon carcinoma (AEH). Anthraquinones are laxative and irritate the GI tract (CAN). Because of the anthraquinones, nonstandardized preparations should be avoided during pregnancy and lactation (CAN). Because the anthraquinones in freshly dried buckthorn bark, it can cause extreme GI irritation, including severe intestinal spasm, as well as vomiting. The bark is aged for a year to allow oxidation of the anthrones (BGB).
1.5 g (BGB); 0.5–2.5 g bark (CAN); 1.8–7.3 g bark (MAD); 2 tsp bark in cold tea 1 ×/day (MAD); 2–5 ml liquid bark extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PNC); 20–180 mg hydroxyanthracene derivatives/day (PH2).
frangula purshiana
Class 2b, 2c, 2d. Contraindicated in hemorrhoids and nephropathy (CAN), intestinal obstruction, abdominal pain of unknown
1/2 tsp powdered bark/cup water, morning and/or night, for short periods (APA); 1–2.5 g powdered bark (PNC); 1 g bark (HHB); 1–3 g dry bark (PED); 2 g dry bark:10 mg alcohol/10 mg water (PED); 100–300 mg dry bark extract (PNC); 2–5 ml liquid bark extract (CAN; PNC); 1/2 tsp tincture (APA); 1–5 ml tincture (SKY); 2–6 ml fluid extract (APA); 1 ml (ca. 10 drops) StX (fluid); 2 (450 mg) capsules at bedtime (NH).
fraxinus excelsior
Class 1 (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
3–4 tsp (3.6–4.8 g) in tea (MAD).
fraxinus nigra
fraxinus ornus
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Manna) — Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Can cause flatulence in sensitive patients (KOM). Contraindicated in cases of bowel obstruction (KOM). Do not take laxatives long term without consulting a physician (KOM).
10–50 g manna in milk (HHB); 20–30 g manna (adult) (KOM; PH2); 2–16 g manna (child) (KOM; PH2).
fucus
Lectin-like mucopolysaccharides, Alginic acid
Class 2b, 2c, 2d. Not recommended for long-term use, especially in hyperthyroids (AHP). Commission E reports thallus not approved for therapeutic use. Other sources report thallus permitted as laxative. Usefulness is not documented adequately. There are no risks from daily doses up to 150 µg iodine per day, but higher doses may induce or exacerbate hyperthyreosis and cause hypersensitivity reactions (rarely) (PHR). The adult intake of iodine should not exceed 120 µg per day (AEH). Iodine content may cause hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism (I suspect that there are also cases where it can help one and the other) (CAN). Because of thyroid gland activity and possible heavy metal contamination, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN).
5–10 g alga 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.25–0.5 cup fresh alga (PED); 2–4 tsp dry alga (PED); 3 tsp dry alga:75 ml alcohol/75 ml water (PED); 4–8 ml liquid algal extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 3.6–7.3 g 4–5 ×/day (MAD).
fucus vesiculosus
Class 2b, 2c, 2d. Not recommended for long-term use, especially in hyperthyroids (AHP). Commission E reports thallus not approved
5–10 g alga 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.25–0.5 cup fresh alga (PED); 2–4 tsp dry alga (PED); 3 tsp dry alga:75 ml alcohol/75 ml water (PED); 4–8 ml liquid algal extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 3.6–7.3 g 4–5 ×/day (MAD).
fumaria officinalis
Not listed (AHP). None reported (KOM). HH3 says protopine is spasmogenic; I’m more inclined to believe BRU, which calls it antispasmodic.
1.25–2 tsp (2–3 g) herb/cup water up to 2 ×/day (APA); 2–3 tsp (2.4–3.6 g) herb/cup tea/day (MAD); 2–4 g herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 6 g herb/day, drink 1 cup warm tea (2–3 g/cup, steeped 20 minutes) 30 minutes before meals (PH2); 6 g/day (APA; KOM; SHT); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 2–4 g aqueous extract (HHB); 1–4 ml herb tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 3.65 g sap/day (MAD); 2–3 tsp (2.4–3.5 g) expressed juice in hot or cold infusion (PH2).
galanthus nivalis
Not covered (AHP). Oral intoxication may lead to colic, diarrhea, and vomiting. Fatal poisonings have not been recorded (PH2). Austria approves galanthamine hydrobromide for modest Alzheimer’s disease; Italy approves it as an antidote for anticholinergia (BRU).
Do not take it! (JAD). Galanthamine hydrobromide 150–350 µg/kg body weight (PH2).
galega officinalis
Galegine and other synthetic guanidine derivatives, chromium content
Not covered by AHP. “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Not approved (KOM); Commission E rates it negatively as both inefficacious and toxic. Intoxication possible with high doses of the drug (BIS); most preparations with biguandine derivatives have been withdrawn from the market (BIS). Poisoning observed only in animals ingesting large quantities; sheep may exhibit paralysis, salivation, spasms, and finally death through asphyxiation (PHR). Since Goat’s Rue contains hypoglycemic compounds, it might interact with hypoglycemic medications (PH2), one way or another.
2 g herb/cup tea (BIS); 0.3–1.2 g powdered herb (PNC); 0.5–5 g aqueous extract (MAD); 1–2 ml liquid extract (PNC).
galeopsis sp.
Not covered (AHP). “Haz-ards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). None reported (KOM; PHR; PIP).
6 g/day herb (KOM; PIP); 2 g herb/cup water 1–3 ×/day (HHB; PHR; PH2); 3 tsp (5.7 g)/cup herb tea (MAD).
galium aparine
asperuloside, harmine, 1-hydroxydesoxypeganin, 8-hydroxy-2,3-dehydrodesoxypeganin, protopine
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). None known (WAM). Diabetics should use the expressed juice only with caution. Excessive use of cleavers should be avoided, especially during pregnancy (CAN). Lower arterial blood pressure in canines with no slowing of heart and no toxic effects. Like other iridoids, asperuloside is a mild laxative (PNC). It can be converted to prostanoid intermediates. I was surprised to find harmine, 1-hydroxydesoxypeganin, 8-hydroxy-2,3-dehydrodesoxypeganin, and protopine listed for this plant by the Herbal PDR (Gruenwald, et al., 2000). I am reluctant to enter them in my database without checking their original sources.
1 oz leaf/pint water 3 ×/day (APA); 5–10 ml herb tincture 3 ×/day (APA); 2–4 g herb as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 3–4 tsp (3.3–4.4 g)/day in tea (MAD); 2–4 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN; PNC); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 3–15 ml expressed juice 3 ×/daily (CAN); 3.75–7.5 g expressed sap (MAD); 4 tsp (3.3–4.4 g) in 2 glasses water (HH2; PH2).
galium odoratum
Class 1. Rarely may cause headache (AHP). None known for proper dosages (PHR). High dosages may cause dizziness,
2 tsp (1.8 g) shoots/glass water (PHR); 1 g drug/day (PHR).
galium verum
asperuloside
Class I (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Asperuloside hypotensive in canines (HHB).
2 heaping tsp in 250 ml water, 2–3 cups/day (PH2).
ganoderma lucidum
Class 1. After 3–6 months consumption, rare individuals report bloody stools. Dizziness, dryness of mouth, throat and nasal area, epistaxis, itchiness, stomach upset (after using for 3–6 months) (AHP; SKY). Do not mix with other antiaggregants (SKY). Pregnant and lactating women should take only on advice of health practitioner (SKY). Rarely used with children, yet of low toxicity (WAM). May cause allergy (APA).
3–6 (606 mg) capsules/day (APA); 1.5–9 dry mushroom/day(SKY); 1–1.5 g powdered mushroom (SKY); 1 ml tincture (SKY).
garcinia cambogia
hydroxycitric acid (HCA)
1500 mg HCA/day (JAMA); 1320 mg HCA in 3 doses/day (JAMA); 500 mg plant extract 3 ×/day (JAMA); 500 mg plant extract + 100 µg nickel chromium 3 ×/day (JAMA); 800 mg plant extract + 50 mg caffeine + 40 µg chromium picolinate 3 ×/day (JAMA); 1500 mg plant extract +1200 mg l-carnitine + 600 µg chromium picolinate/day (JAMA).
garcinia hanburyi
Not covered (AHP). As little as 200 mg resin can induce colic and nausea (PHR). Fatalities with 4 g (PHR; PH2). Extracts bactericidal and protisticidal against, for example, Aerobacter, Enterovirus, Micrococcus, and Mycobacteria (PH2).
0.1 g resin (HHB).
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Large doses can irritate GI mucous membranes (PHR). Mustard oil can cause blisters and necrosis (PH2). Seed extracts are possibly teratological (ZUL).
1–2.5 drachms seed (DEP); 1–3 fluid oz decoction 3–4 ×/day (DEP); none given (PHR).
gardenia jasminoides
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PH2).
6–12 g dry fruit (FAY).
gaultheria procumbens
gelidium amansii
Class 2d. Take with at least 250 ml (8 oz liquid); contraindicated in bowel obstruction (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
4–16 g 1–2 ×/day (AHP); 4–16 g in 1–4 doses (HHB); 1–2 tsp powdered agar, always with liquid, 1–3 ×/day (PH2).
gelsemium sempervirens
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Not for use in cardiac weakness. Side effects may include coma, cyanosis, difficulty in swallowing, dizziness, double vision, dyspnea, headache, heavy eyelids, hypocyclosis, loss of speech, muscle stiffness, mydriasis, vomiting, and xerostoma. Extracts corresponding to 0.5 g can kill a child, 2–3 g an adult (PH2).
Now mostly homeopathic (PHR).
genista tinctoria
Class 2b (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Overdoses can cause diarrhea (PH2). Not for use by pregnant women (PH2).
2 tsp/day in hot tea (MAD); 1 tsp herb/cup, 1–2 cups/day (PHR; PH2); tinctures used for gravel and stone (MAD).
Unknown ID
Class 2d. Root contraindicated in acid stomach, gastrosis, heartburn, and duodenal and gastric ulcers (AHP; KOM; SKY). May cause headache (KOM; PIP). Reportedly contraindicated in hypertension (CAN). Gentian has documented mutagenic activity and is reputed to affect the menstrual cycle, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). Mutagenic activity in the AMES test has been documented for gentian with gentisin and isogentisin identified as mutagenic components. Gentian root is reported to contain 1000 ppm total mutagenic compounds, of which 760 were gentisin and isogentisin (CAN). Blumenthal et al., (1998) caution re dandelion, but not gentian, that, “As with all drugs containing bitter substances, discomfort due to gastric hyperacidity may occur” (KOM). Do I need to write out this caveat for all the bitter herbs (Pedersen, 1998, classifies nearly half of his herbs as bitter)? Warning: may cause hyperacidity and gastric distress. In general, bitter substances stimulate gastric secretion.
0.5–1 tsp fresh root (PED); 0.25–0.5 g dry root (PED); 0.5 g dry root:3 ml alcohol/2 ml water (PED); 0.6–2 g root, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.3–2 g root/day (HHB); 2–4 g root/day (KOM; PIP); 0.5–2 g powdered root (PNC); 1 tsp powdered root/3 cups water, take 1 tbsp 30 minutes before meals (APA); 1 g herb/cup water, or 1–4 ml tincture 3 ×/day (PH2); 1–3 g root tincture/day (KOM; PIP); 20–40 drops tincture (APA); 10 drops tincture 2–3 ×/day (MAD); up to 20 drops tincture before meals (SKY); 2–5 ml tincture (PNC); 1–4 ml herbal tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5–4 g extract/day (APA); 2–4 g fluid extract (KOM; PIP); 1.5–4 ml herb infusion (PNC).
gentiana lutea
geranium maculatum
0.5 tsp in cold water for hemoptysis (CEB); 60–300 mg dry extract (MAD); 0.5–2 ml liquid extract (MAD); 1–2 ml liquid extract 3 ×/day (PH2); 1–2 g 3 ×/day (PH2); 2–4 ml tincture 3 ×/day (PH2).
geranium robertianum
2 tsp (2.6 g) herb in hot or cold water (MAD); 1.5 g herb/day (PH2); 1 tbsp herb in 1/2 liter water (PH2).
geum rivale
geum rivale l.
geum urbanum
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
From Geum urbanum: 1 g herb in tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–4 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% alcohol) (CAN); 10–15 drops herb tincture 2–3 ×/day (MAD); 0.5–1 tsp herb in hot water several ×/day (PH2); 1–4 ml liquid root extract (PNC).
geum urbanum l.
1 g herb (in tea) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–4 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% alcohol) (CAN); 10–15 drops tincture 2–3 ×/day (MAD); 0.5–1 tsp in hot water, several ×/day (PH2); 1–4 ml liquid root extract (PNC).
gillenia stipulatus
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Indian Physic) — Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
gillenia trifoliata
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
Unknown ID
Gingerols, shogaols, EOs, oleoresins, proteolytic enzymes, 6-Gingesulfonic acid, 6-gingerol, 6-shogaol, 8 Gingerol
Class 2b, 2d (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Perhaps erring on the side of caution, Reichert cautions that ginger may raise the blood pressure, may amplify blood-thinning drug activities, and might be contraindicated in pregnancy. Contraindicated in childhood fevers and gallstones (WAM). Patients with gallstones should consult a practitioner before taking ginger (AHP). The Lawrence Review says overdoses may cause cardiac arrhythmias and CNS depression (LRNP, November 1991). Large doses (6 g or more) possibly gastroirritant, causing a significant increase in exfoliation of gastric surface epithelial cells in human volunteers (MAB). Due to ginger’s strong antiaggregant activity, experts recommend it not be used by people with blood clotting disorders. Many chemotherapy patients experience periods when their blood platelet counts drop dramatically. Doctors will warn patients to avoid aspirin when their platelet counts are low. They feel that patients should also avoid ginger when their platelet count drops, while continuing use of ginger for patients with normal platelet counts. Less conservatively, Commission E reports rhizome should not be used for vomiting in pregnancy (AEH). Lininger et al. (1998) adds heartburn as a rare side effect. “A doctor should be informed if ginger is used before surgery to counteract possible postanesthesia nausea” (SKY).
3–10 g fresh ginger, or 2–4 g dry ginger, 1–3 ×/day (JAD; SKY); 0.3–1.5 g rhizome several ×/day (MAD); 500–1000 mg fresh root 3 ×/day (MAB); 2–4 tbsp fresh root (PED); 3–6 g dry root (PED); 4.5 g dry root:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 500 mg dry root 2–4 ×/day (MAB); 0.3–1 g powdered root (PNC); 2 tsp powdered root/cup water (APA); 0.25–1.0 g herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.7–2 ml liquid extract (1:2)/day (MAB); 0.25–3 ml herbal tincture (CAN; SKY); 0.25–3 ml tincture (PNC); 1.7–5 ml tincture (1:5)/day (MAB); 1.5–9 g/day (FAY); 2–4 g/day (HH3); 500 mg tablet 2–4 ×/day (MAB); 3 (530 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (NH); 1 (480 mg) StX 2 ×/day; 15–60 mg ginger oleoresin (PNC); 2.5–5 ml ginger syrup (PNC).
ginkgo biloba
Flavonoid glycosides, Terpene lactones, 4-O-methylpyridoxine, Ginkgolic acid, Bilobin, ginkgolide, apigenin
Class 2d. May potentiate MAOIs (AHP; WAM). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Though regarded by many as a poisonous plant, ginkgo, selling at $500 million a year in Europe, has not accumulated much data in the alarmists’ journals. According to LRNP (February 1994) and SHT, mild adverse effects include allergic dermatosis (0.09%), anxiety (0.07%), diarrhea (0.14%), GI upset (0.14%), headache (0.22%), insomnia, and nausea (0.34%). Schulz discounts the MAOI warnings saying there are “no known interactions with other drugs.” In my CRC Handbook of Nuts, I don’t discuss the leaves (extracts of which are sold as medicine). Fruits are allergenic (and disgustingly malodorous) and too many of the edible seeds can cause serious problems, even death. The seed toxin 4-O-methylpyridoxine is reportedly responsible for the gin-nan food poisoning, with convulsions, loss of consciousness, even lethality in 27% of Japanese cases, especially infants. Ginkgolic acid may act like urushiol of poison ivy fame. Bilobin and ginkgolic acid are similar to poison ivy’s allergen (LRNP, February 1988). German herb companies may be forced to document that their ginkgo products contain no more than 5 ppm ginkgolic acid. CAN cautions against gastric upset and headache (CAN). All that and Lininger et al. (1998) counter, “essentially devoid of any side effects. Mild headaches lasting for a day or two have been reported ... There are no known contraindications to the use of GBE by pregnant and lactating women” (SKY). Contraindicated for any person on coumadin or heparin; should not be taken by people with a clotting disorder, such as hemophilia or von Willdebrand’s Disease (O’Brien, 1998).
4.5 g seed (FAY); 4.5 g leaf with 4.5 g root Polygonum multiflorum and 4.5 g bark Uncaria for cardiopathy (FAY); 1–2 tbsp fresh leaf (PED); 2–3 g dry leaf (PED); 2 g dry leaf:10 ml alcohol/10 ml water (PED); 40 mg solid leaf extract 3 ×/day (CAN); 80–120 mg leaf extract/day (CAN); 0.5 ml fluid extract (1:1) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5 ml tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 1 (40 mg extract) tablet 3 ×/day with meals (APA); 1 (385 mg) capsule (StX to contain 40 mg certified potency 50:1 ginkgo leaf extract with at least 24% flavonoid glycosides) 3 ×/day (NH); 40–80 mg StX 3 ×/day; 120–160 mg StX (6% terpene lactones, 24% flavone glycosides) 2–3 ×/day (SKY). | Blumenthal et al. (1998) suggest 120–160 mg native dry extract in 2–3 doses for “improvement of pain-free walking distance in peripheral arterial occlusive disease in Stage II of Fontaine (intermittent claudication) in a regimen of physical therapeutic measures, in particular walking exercise” and “vertigo and tinnitus (ringing in the ear) of vascular and involutional origin,” and they suggest 120–240 mg native dry extract in 2–3 doses for dementia syndromes with the following symptoms “memory deficits, disturbances in concentration, depressive emotional condition, dizziness, tinnitus, headache and dementia syndromes, including primary degenerative dementia, vascular dementia.”
glechoma hederacea
pulegone, 2-alpha-hydroxyursolic acid, 2-beta-hydroxyursolic acid, ursolic acid
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Animals grazing the plant are often intoxicated; symptoms include accelerated weak pulse, conjunctival hemorrhage, difficulty in breathing, dilation of the caecum, dizziness, elevated temperature, gastroenterosis, and megalosplenia. Grazing horses have suffered fatalities, as have mice fed only on this plant 3–4 days (PH2). CAN cautions that the pulegone in the volatile oil is an irritant to the GI tract and kidneys. Because of the irritant oil, its use in nephrosis, pregnancy, and lactation is to be avoided. Contraindicated, reportedly, in epilepsy, lactation, nephrosis, and pregnancy. In view of the lack of toxicity data and the reported cytotoxic activity of ursolic acid, excessive use of ground ivy should be avoided (CAN). But, all plants contain cytotoxic compounds and many, if not most, contain ursolic acid (JAD). Pulegone is an irritant, hepatotoxic, and abortifacient principle. In view of the lack of toxicity data and the possible irritant and abortifacient action of the volatile oil, the use of ground ivy during pregnancy and lactation should be avoided (PHR).
2–4 g dry herb, or in tea, 1–3 ×/day (CAN; PH2); 2–4 ml liquid herbal extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2 g in tea (HHB); 1 tsp (0.8 g) herb in tea (MAD); 30–50 g plant juices (MAD).
gleditsia triacanthos
gloriosa superba l.
Poison (1; CRC). Larger doses toxic, possibly lethal; do not take (JAD).
5–10 grains vermifuge, stomachic, and tonic (WOI); larger doses toxic, possibly lethal; do not take (JAD).
Colchicine
Colchicine can kill (ZUL). Human deaths recorded, mistaking the bulbs for onions. Symptoms include tingling and numbness of the lips, mucous membrane irritation, severe vomiting, diarrhea, colic, hypotension, convulsions, and respiratory failure (CRC; JAD).
5–10 grains vermifuge, stomachic, and tonic (WOI); larger doses toxic, possibly lethal; do not take (JAD).
glycine max
Daidzein, Genistein, Lecithin, Phospholipids, Linoleic acid
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Soybean) — Not covered (AHP). No hazards or major side effects known when administered properly. Occasional GI problems, diarrhea, gastralgia, and loose stool (PHR). Enriched phosphatidylcholine (73–79%) is hepatoprotective, hepatoregenerative, and hypocholesterolemic (lowering LDL cholesterol). NOTE: Commission E does not list soybean as an approved herb. It approves soy lecithin for hypercholesterolemia, and soy phospholipid for hepatosis and hypercholesterolemia. I am scoring the whole soy as a container of daidzein, genistein (not covered by Commission E), lecithin, and phospholipids (composed primarily of linoleic acid, to me not too exciting). Most food grade legumes contain these.
1–3 g phospholipids/day (SHT).
glycyrrhiza glabra
glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhizinic acid
Class 2b, 2c, 2d. “Contraindicated in heart disease, diabetics, hypertensives, hepatoses, and nephroses” (O’Brien, 1998). Commission E reports contraindications: cholestatic liver diseases, liver cirrhosis, hypertension, hypokalemia, severe renal insufficiency, and pregnancy. May potentiate thiazide diuretics, stimulant laxatives, cardiac glycosides, and cortisol (AHP; WAM). Too much (>50 g/day) can raise the blood pressure, cause sodium and water retention, and lower potassium levels too far. May result in pseudoaldosterianism. Adverse effects reported in M30: amenorrhea, cardiac arrest, congestive
2–4 tbsp fresh root (PED); 3–6 g dry root (PED); 4.5 g dry root:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 1–2 g root (but 5–15 g chopped root for ulcers) (APA); 1–4 g root, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1.5–9 g root (FAY); 2–4 g root (KAP); 1.5 (–5) g root/cup (HHB); 5–10 g root/day (PNC; SKY); 5–15 g root/day = 200–600 mg glycyrrhizin (PH2); 0.6–2 g powdered root extract (PNC); 2–5 ml liquid root extract (PNC); 0.6–2 ml liquid root extract (BPC; CAN); 2–5 ml root tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 2–6 ml/day fluid extract (1:1) (MAB); 1.2–2.4 g/day deglycyrrhizinated licorice (DGL) extract (MAB); 200–300 mg DGL 3 ×/day (SKY); 200–600 mg glycyrrhizin/day (JAD); 1–3 (315 mg) capsules (StX with 200 mg certified potency root extract with at least 50 mg glycyrrhizinic acid, synergistically combined in a base of licorice root powder) 1–3 ×/day (NH); 5–15 g root/day corresponding to 200–800 mg glycyrrhizin (WHO).
gnaphalium obtusifolium l.
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2).
Handful of tops (flowers and leaves) to boil in 1 pint water, strain and boil to 0.5 pint, add 0.5 pint milk and heat until milk is at scalding, adults take 0.5 cupful.
gnaphalium uliginosum
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
hydrastine-chlorate
0.5–1.2 g root (AHP; PNC); 0.5–1 g root, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1 g root, maximum 4.9 g/day (HHB); 4–6 g root/day (SKY); 150–350 mg root 3 ×/day; 1–2 tbsp fresh root (PED); 1.5–3 g dry root (PED); 2 g dry root:10 ml alcohol/10 ml water (PED); 500 mg dry root/day (APA); 0.5–1 tsp powdered root/cup water (APA); 0.3–1 ml liquid root extract (AHP; CAN; PNC); 2–4 ml root tincture (CAN; PNC); 2–4 ml root tincture (1:3)/day (MAB); 2–4 ml (20–40 drops) tincture (AHP); 1 dropper tincture 3 ×/day (APA); 15–40 drops fluid extract several ×/day (MAD); 1–4 g fluid extract/day (MAD); 4–6 ml liquid extract (SKY); 50–150 mg hydrastine-chlorate (MAD); 1–2 (535 mg) capsules 3 ×/day; 1 (465 mg) StX 2–3 ×/day (NH).
gossypium barbadense
Class 2b. Contraindi-cated in urogenital irritation or tendency to inflammation; may sterilize men (AHP). LD50 gossypol 10–20 mg/kg ipr rat.
100 g root in 1 liter water, reduced by boiling to 0.5 liter, take 50 g liquid every half hour (dangerous formula for abortion; CRC); 3 leaves in 1 liter water for hypertension (JFM); 6–8 g seed/150 g water or milk, 3 ×/day as lactagogue (f; JFM).
gossypium herbaceum
Class 2b (AHP). Contraindicated in urogenital irritation or tendency to inflammation; may sterilize men (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Drug toxic
100 g root in 1 liter water, reduced by boiling to 0.5 liter, take 50 g liquid every half hour (dangerous formula for abortion; CRC); 1–2 tbsp fluid extract during childbirth (HHB); 3 leaves in 1 liter water for hypertension (JFM); 6–8 g seed/150 g water or milk, 3 ×/day as lactagogue (f; JFM); 1.8–3.75 g root bark, 20–40 drops liquid extract (PH2); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PH2).
gossypium hirsutum
Class 2b (AHP). Contraindicated in urogenital irritation or tendency to inflammation; may sterilize men (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Drug is toxic due to gossypol. Animals fed seed press cakes for 3–4 weeks showed enterosis, gastrosis, hematuria, jaundice, nephritis, and ophthalmic disorders (PH2).
100 g root/1 liter water, reduced by boiling to 0.5 liter, take 50 g liquid every half hour (dangerous formula for abortion, CRC); 3 leaves in 1 liter water for hypertension (JFM); 6–8 g seed/150 g water or milk, 3 ×/day as lactagogue (f; JFM); 1–2 tbsp fluid extract during childbirth (HHB).
gossypium hirsutum l.
gratiola officinalis
“Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Cucurbitacins very irritant to mucous membranes. Overdosage can cause diuresis, even anuria, and finally, circulatory collapse, colic, and cramps. Fatalities rare; after cramps, circulatory collapse, and paralysis (PH2). Use can cause bloody stools and kidney irritation (EFS).
0.3 g/cup herb tea (HHB; PH2); 0.15–0.3 g powdered herb or decoction thereof (MAD).
grifola frondosa
Class 1 (AHP). None reported (SKY).
3–7 g/day (SKY).
grindelia camporum
Commission E reports no contraindications, adverse effects, or interactions except for gastric irritation (AEH; KOM). Large doses are said to be poisonous (PHR).
4–6 g herb (KOM); 3–6 g liquid herb extract (KOM); 0.05–1.2 ml liquid herb extract (PNC).
grindelia squarrosa
guaiacum officinale
lignans
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). None known (KOM). CAN caution that the lignans are allergenic and may cause dermatosis. Recommended that people with allergy, hypersensitive or acute inflammatory conditions avoid it. Avoid use when pregnant or lactating (CAN). High doses may cause colic, diarrhea, and other GI complaints (PHR). Resin LD50 = >5000 mg/kg orl rat.
1–2 g wood in tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 4.5 g wood/day (KOM); 6–9 tsp (28–40 g) wood in tea (MAD); 1.5 g wood/cold water, up to 5 g/day (PHR); 1–2 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 80% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.3–2 g (HHB); 2–4 ml tincture (PNC; CAN).
guarea rusbyi
Not covered (AHP).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Large doses cause diarrhea, fatigue, and nausea (HHB; PH2).
0.5–1 g bark 3 ×/day (HHB; HH2); 1.3–3 g for amenorrhea (HH2).
guazuma ulmifolia
caffeine
Nontoxic; LD50 = >25,000 mg/kg orl rat; LD50 = 5975 mg/kg ipr rat.
Class 1. High doses may irritate kidney and/or stomach (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
4–6 g gumweed or 3–6 g gumweed fluid extract (KOM; PH2); 2–4 g fluid extract (MAD); 2–3 tsp(1.8–2.1 g) herb/cup tea (MAD).
gymnema
water soluble acidic fraction
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Generally safe and devoid of side effects at indicated levels; safety in lactation and pregnancy undetermined; should be used for diabetes under the purview of a practitioner; not to be used in place of insulin (SKY). Gymnema leaves raise insulin levels in healthy volunteers; leaves also lower serum cholesterol and triglycerides (SKY); water soluble acidic fractions are hypoglycemic (SKY). Gymnema given orally proved as potent as tolbutamide in lowering blood sugar, and keeping it low, in a 1-month study (APA).
1–2 tbsp fresh leaf (PED); 2–3 g dry leaf (PED); 2 g dry leaf:10 ml alcohol/10 ml water (PED); 2–4 g powdered leaf (KAP); 2–4 g powdered leaf/day (SKY); 14–28 ml leaf decoction (KAP); 5–10 ml/day 1:1 extract (KEB); 1–2 ml/day to decrease cravings for sweets (KEB); 400 mg water-soluble acidic fraction in India (SKY).
gymnema sylvestre
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Generally safe and devoid of side effects at indicated levels; safety in lactation and pregnancy undetermined; should be used for diabetes under the purview of a practitioner; not to be used in place of insulin (SKY). Gymnema leaves raise insulin levels in healthy volunteers; leaves also lower serum cholesterol and triglycerides (SKY); water soluble acidic fractions are hypoglycemic (SKY). Gymnema given orally proved as potent as tolbutamide in lowering blood sugar, and keeping it low, in a 1-month study (APA).
1–2 tbsp fresh leaf (PED); 2–3 g dry leaf (PED); 2 g dry leaf:10 ml alcohol/10 ml water (PED); 2–4 g powdered leaf (KAP); 2–4 g powdered leaf/day (SKY); 14–28 ml leaf decoction (KAP); 5–10 ml/day 1:1 extract (KEB); 1–2 ml/day to decrease cravings for sweets (KEB); 400 mg water-soluble acidic fraction in India (SKY).
gynostemma pentaphyllum
gypenosides
I don’t find this in any of my books. Hence I have no negative information. Gypenosides LD50 = >100 × therapeutic dose.
In an interesting departure, Blumert and Liu give dosage recommendations, indication by indication, based on StX 20 mg tablets (85% gypenosides); in general, the preventive dose is 20 mg 2–3 ×/day, while the therapeutic dose is 60 mg 2–3 ×/day; other experimental data reported 5–10 mg/kg ivn dog (ABS); 20 mg gypenosides orl man 3 ×/day/1 mo (ABS); 20 mg gypenosides orl man 2 ×/day/3 mos (ABS); water extract with 30 mg gypenosides; and 1 ml/kg body weight (ABS). Standardization may soon produce products with 85% gypenosides.
gypsophila paniculata
Commission E reports no contraindications, adverse effects, or interactions except for gastric irritation (AEH). Blumenthal et al. reports that it irritates the mucous membranes. Unlike Blumenthal et al., Gruenwald et al. treats the more dangerous Gypsophila under the slightly less dangerous Saponaria, both well-endowed with saponins.
The dosage mentioned by Blumenthal et al., 30–150 mg dry root or 3–15 mg saponin, is very different than that of Gruenwald, 1.5 g/day (KOM; PHR).
haematoxylum campechianum
hematoxylin
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Internal hematoxylin in animals may induce anuria, coma, hyperthermia, vomiting, and possibly death (PH2).
Doses equivalent to 1 g drug (HHB; PH2).
hagenia abyssinica
Not covered (AHP). Very toxic (PH2). Irritant to mucous membranes, large doses inducing colic, nausea, and vomiting (WOI). Overdosage may cause abortion, collapse, debility, headache, nausea, salivation, and visual disorders (PH2).
Too dangerous to take (JAD). Yet in Hager’s Handbuch der Pharmazeutischen Praxis, one finds for children, 10–15 g powdered drug, with citrus juice or red wine (20–30 g for adults) (HHB) (not me, please, JAD).
hamamelis virginiana
hamelia patens
harpagophytum procumbens
harpagoside
Class 2b, 2d (AHP). Contraindicated in duodenal and gastric ulcers (AHP, 1997). Commission E reports contraindications in GI ulcer (AEH). Contraindicated in people with diabetes. Excessive doses may interfere with blood pressure and cardiac therapy (CAN). LD50 = >13,500 mg/kg orl mouse (CAN).
1 tsp chopped root/2 cups water, sipped through day (APA); 1.5–4.5(–10) g root (KOM; SHT; SKY); 6 g root/day (MAB); 1–2 tsp fresh root (PED); 0.5–1 g dry root (PED); 1 g dry root:5 ml alcohol/5 ml water (PED); 0.1–0.25 g powdered tuber (PNC); 0.1–0.25 g dry tuber as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.1–0.25 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 6–12 ml liquid extract (1:2)/day (MAB); 15–30 ml tincture (1:5)/day (MAB); 0.5–1 ml root tincture (1:5 in 25% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
harungana madagascariensis
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports contraindications of bark with leaf: acute pancreatitis (though recommended for pancreatic insuf- ficiency), severe hepatic dysfunction, bile stones, biliary obstruction, empyema of gall bladder, ileus; adverse effects: photosensitivity remotely possible due to hypericin and pseudohypericin. Should not be used for more than 2 months (AEH; KOM; PHR; PH2).
7.5–15 mg hydroalcoholic extract (dry) corresponding to 25–50 mg drug (PH2).
cardioactive compounds, cyanogenic compounds, tannin, oleanolic acids (COX-2 inhibitors), ursolic acids (COX-2 inhibitors), luteolin-7-glucoside, hyperoside, rutin, OPCs, flavonoids, pectin
CAN cautions that because of uterine activity, in vivo and in vitro, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Not for use during first trimester of pregnancy (PH2). LRNP (January 1994), admitting that low doses are usually devoid of adverse effects, says that high doses may induce hypotension (that can be good in hypertension) and sedation (which can be good in insomnia). Side effects reported include fatigue, nausea, rash, and sweating (CAN). The tyramine content might suggest avoidance of MAOIs. High dose may be arrhythmogenic, hypotensive, sedative, tremorigenic, and vertigogenic (PH2). Still, in combination with beta-blockers “may cause a hypertensive effect” (PH2). May potentiate other cardiac drugs! One paper cited in Mitchell and Rook notes that corneal scratches with the thorns led to blindness in 88 of 132 Irish accidents. With cyanogenic and cardioactive compounds, not to mention tannin, scattered throughout the plant, it should not be taken lightly” (CRC).
German clinical studies of 60 patients with stable angina receiving 60 mg hawthorn 3 ×/day showed increased coronary perfusion and economized myocardial oxygen consumption (CAN). At 900 mg/day, hawthorn extract compared favorably with Captopril (37.5 mg/day) in treating patients with Stage II cardiac insufficiency (BGB). Isolated constituents (mainly flavonoids) have LD50’s of 50–2600 mg/kg ivn, 6000 mg/kg orl in animals (CAN). Oral toxicity of hawthorn 6000 mg/kg orally (MAB).
hebanthe eriantha
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PHR; PH2). Once a well-known published author offered me a generous consulting fee to go through the Spanish and Portuguese literature and summarize the folk literature and information on suma for him. I had written on the plant long ago for the Flora of Panama, where Pfaffia also occurs. He came from one of the four main entry disciplines to ethnobotany and herbal medicine and medical botany, (1) anthropology, (2) botany, (3) chemistry, and (4) pharmacy/pharmacology but I’ll not divulge. I gave him 4 days worth of work and found nothing. He reneged because my report was negative. Today, that scientist continues to publish, often copying without citing other ethnobotanical writers’ data. And he is, what I call, one of the paid hypsters who will write a positive opinion page on a worthless herb, for a fee. Then an
500–1000 mg dry herb 2–3 ×/day (APA); 1–2 (520 mg) capsules 2 ×/day (APA).
hedeoma pulegioides (l.) pers.
Class 2b. Emmenagogue and uterotonic (AHP). In Canada, only allowed in food or beverage if pulegone-free (AHP). Used as an emmenagogue and abortifacient. Pennyroyal oil is toxic and potentially fatal if ingested. Symptoms include abdominal cramps, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, rash, dizziness, and alternating lethargy and agitation, leading to kidney failure, massive hepatic necrosis, and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Serious toxicity with the tea has not been reported. CNS symptoms from ingesting pennyroyal-containing preparations include lethargy, agitation, dizziness, sometimes leading to seizures and auditory and visual hallucinations. GI effects include nausea, vomiting, burning in the throat, abdominal pain, and diarrhea (AEH1).
Should not be taken (APA).
hedera helix
heimia salicifolia
helianthemum canadense
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
helianthus annuus
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Sunflower) — Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Pollen or plant extracts may cause allergic reactions (FAD).
Dosages (Sunflower) — 1 tsp seed oil caused 4 day diuresis (JFM); 2 tbsp/2 hours of infusion (20 g young shoots in 200 cc sweetened water) (JFM); 20–25 drops herb tincture 2–3 ×/day (MAD).
helichrysum arenarium (l.) moench
Not covered by AHP. Commission E reports flower permitted for oral use. Contraindications of biliary obstruction (AEH). Use only after consultation with physician if gallstones are present (KOM). Presence of gallstones can lead to colic (PHR). No known drug interactions and side effects (KOM).
3 g flower/day (KOM).
heliotropium europaeum
Carcinogenic (1; CRC; FNF); Hepatotoxic (1; CRC); Poison (1; CRC).
heliotropium indicum
May be toxic if drunk regularly or in large doses (carcinogenic and/or liver toxicity).
6 g leaf/100 g water shown antimalarial in Instituo Medico Nacional (JFM); boil three 15-cm stem with leaf 5 minutes in 3 cups water and drink warm (AAB); boil 3 leaves in 1 cup water 10 min and strain for collyrium (AAB).
helleborus niger
Poison (1; CRC); Toxic (1; HH2; PH2); Irritant (1; PH2). Marked with 'X'. Dangerous (JAD).
Dangerous (JAD). 50-mg root or rhizome; maximum single dose 200 mg; largest daily dose 1000 mg (HHB; HH2; PHR); 250–1000 mg powdered root (MAD).
hemerocallis fulva
Hemerocallin
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). While flower buds are considered edible, the roots of daylilies are generally considered toxic and should not be ingested. Overdoses may cause urinary incontinence, respiratory arrest, dilated pupils, and even blindness. Daylily root is not an “herb for self medication” (FAY).
4.5–6 g (30 g is way too much, possibly even a blinding dose of root) (FAY).
hemidesmus indicus
heracleum sphondylium
furanocoumarins, psoralen
Not covered (AHP). Like many umbellifers, this one is serious phototoxic, the furanocoumarins causing blistering and exfoliation. Avoid sunshine, ultraviolet light, and solaria during administration (PH2). Root contains psoralen, under investigation for treatment of psoriasis, leukemia, and AIDS (FAD).
Powdered root (1 tsp/day over a long period) was taken, along with a strong tea of the leaves and tops, for epilepsy (FAD); 2 g fluid extract (MAD); 30 drops tincture for cough, 3 tsp herb/2 glass cold water, steeped for 8 hours, and sipped throughout the day (PH2).
herniaria glabra
coumarin
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). The coumarin reported from H. hirsuta by WOI is said to be powerfully narcotic and gastroirritant, in large doses causing cardiodepression, coldness of the extremities, nausea, vertigo, and vomiting (WOI).
3 tsp (ca 5.8 g) shoot in cold or hot infusion (MAD); 1 tsp (1.4–1.5 g) shoot in tea 2–3 ×/day (PH2).
hibiscus rosa-sinensis
Internal uses contraindicated in small children and pregnant or lactating women (TRA). Hydroethanolic extract LD50 1000 ppm (TRA).
hibiscus sabdariffa
1.5 g (3/4 tsp) dry herb/cup (APA); 1–2 tsp fresh flowers (PED); 0.5–1 g dry flowers (PED); 1 g dry flower/cup water (PED); 1.5 g/cup (PH2).
hibiscus syriacus l.
3–9 g dry flowers, 30–60 g fresh flowers (FAY). 3–9 g dry bark; 30–60 g fresh root (FAY).
hieracium pilosella
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
hierochloe odorata
hippomane mancinella
hippophae rhamnoides
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Sea Buckthorn) — Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
Food farmacy. Take as one of your Struggle for Seven Fruits (JAD). 5–10 g (PH2).
holarrhena pubescens
at least 18 alkaloids, conessine (4000 ppm)
Not covered (KOM; PHR; AHP; APA). Doses of conessine >500 mg day may induce GI distress, insomnia, restlessness, tremors, vertigo, possibly even death from central respiratory paralysis (WBB; WOI). LD50 (50% ethanolic fruit extract) = 250 mg/kg ipr mouse (MPI). LD50 (50% ethanolic sb extract) = 1000 mg/kg ipr mouse (MPI). With at least 18 alkaloids, is the conessine most important at 4000 ppm. Conessine increases coronary outflow in isolated animal tissues. Induces narcosis in frogs and is locally anesthetic in guinea pigs, being “twice as active as cocaine.” Subcutaneous injections may induce necrosis. Conessine has antiamebic activities comparable to emetine.
2–4 g powdered seed (KAP); 28–74 ml decoction or tea (KAP); 2–4 ml tincture (KAP); daily dose of 60–120 grains powdered bark in 3–4 portions (KAB); bark taken in decoction (WOI); doses >500 mg/person may be toxic.
homalomena spp.
hordeum vulgare
Class 2b (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
Food farmacy. 450 mg (PH2). J. I quote here a food farmacy recipe that I have seen only in the Bible, “Take thou unto thee wheat, and barley, and beans, and lentils, and millet, and fitches, and put them in one vessel, and make thee bread thereof...And thou shalt eat it as barley cakes...” (Ezekiel 4:9, 12).
glucosinolates, irritant oil, horseradish peroxidase
Class 2d. Contraindicated with gastrosis, GI mucososis, and nephrosis. Not for children under 4 years old (AHP; AEH; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). CAN cautions that glucosinolates are allergenic and irritant. Because of the irritant oil, excessive ingestion should be avoided during pregnancy and lactation. May depress thyroid function, an action “common to all members of the cabbage and mustard family.” “The oil is one of the most hazardous of all EOs and is not recommended for either external or internal use” (CAN). Excessive doses may lead to diarrhea or night sweats. “One case of a heart attack has been recorded—the patient survived” (TAD). Horseradish peroxidase hypotensive (ivn cat), stimulates arachidonic acid metabolites (CAN).
20 g fresh root (KOM); 1–2 tbsp fresh root (PED); 2–4 g fresh root before meals (CAN); 1–2 drachms grated root (FEL); 1.5–3 g dry root (PED); 2 g dry root:10 ml alcohol/10 ml water (PED); 0.5–1 tsp root 3 ×/day (SKY); 2–3 ml tincture 3 ×/day (SKY).
glucosinolate, adrenergic neuron blocking agent
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). 15 g root bark is an abortive (HHB), hence contraindicated in pregnancy (PH2). 5 g/kg led to gastric hyperkeratosis and liver steatosis orally in rat (PH2). Parenteral dose of 22–50 mg/kg glucosinolate is lethal in mice.
1 tsp root bark tincture in syrup every 3 hours for malaria and nephrosis (JFM).
hoslundia opposita
houttuynia cordata
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). May cause dyspnea (shortness of breath) if overconsumed (LMP; TAD).
Food farmacy (JAD); 10–15 g in decoction (HHB); 15–30 g (FAY).
humulus lupulus
fresh hops oil, humulone, lupulone, myrcene, bitter acids, flavanones, 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol, Isovaleric acid, Piperidine, quercitrin, ursolic acid
Class 2d (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). None reported (KOM; PHR; PIP). Some caution against use in depression (AHP). Mild allergies or dermatosis may result from contact. Oleo-resin reported to be allergenic, possibly causes dermatosis (CAN). Respiratory allergy caused by handling of hop cones (fresh hops oil, humulone, lupulone, and myrcene produce positive skin patch tests). Pollen can cause contact dermatosis. They suggest that hops be contraindicated in depressive states as the sedative effect of hops may aggravate or accentuate symptoms. “The sedative effect may potentiate the effects of existing sedative therapy and alcohol” (CAN). In vitro antispasmodic activity on the uterus has been documented. Because of uterine activity, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. “Excessive use should be avoided in view of the limited toxicity data” (CAN). Avoid if pregnant (WAM). Do not use if suffering estrogen-dependent disorders (WAM).
500 mg/day (SF); 2–6 tsp fresh flower (PED); 1–3 g dry flower (PED); 2 g dry flower:10 ml alcohol/10 ml water (PED); 1–2 tsp inflorescence/cup water (SKY; WIC); 0.5–1 (–2 as hypnotic) g hops, or in tea (CAN; SKY); 0.5–1 g powdered herb; 0.5–15 g cones (PNC); 1 tsp (0.4 g) cone cup (PH2); 0.5–2.0 ml liquid hops extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) (CAN); 0.5–4 ml liquid inflorescence extract (PNC); 1–2 ml hops tincture (1:5 in 60% ethanol) 1–3 ×/day (CAN; SKY); 2–4 ml inflorescence tincture (PNC); 2–4 g inflorescence tincture (MAD); 120–300 mg lupulin (PNC). Cones = flowers = dry infloresences.
huperzia serrata
Huperzine A
Pregnant women, and people with hypertension or pulmonary problems due to increased bronchial secretions should not take it. Said to have a high therapeutic index with few side effects (ABS).
200–300 µg huperzine A/day.
hura crepitans
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR).
2–3 seed/purge (JFM).
hydnocarpus spp.
Not covered (AHP). Overdoses may induce CNS ups and downs, cramping, dyspnea, headache, myalgia, nausea, nephrosis, respiratory problems, and visual disorders (MAD).
0.3 ml oil 3 ×/day, to a max dose of 4 ml/day (HHB); 1–4 ml oil (KAP); 1–3 g powdered seed (KAP).
hydrangea arborescens
Hydrangin, Hydrangenol, quercetin, rutin
Class 2d. Not for prolonged use. Do not exceed recommended dose. Cyanogenic properties (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). CAN cautions regarding GI irritation and dermatosis. Overdoses may cause tightness in chest and vertigo. Hydrangin may cause gastrosis and enterosis. And the cop-out clause. In view of the “lack of” data, use during pregnancy and lactation, and excessive use should be avoided (CAN). Extract is nontoxic in animals (PNC). Hydrangenol is allergenic (PHR; PH2). Flavonoids such as quercetin and rutin (widespread in other herbs) are said to be diuretic, to inhibit tumor formation, and to reduce inflammation. Synthesized hydrangeol derivatives are reportedly antiallergic, inhibiting hyaluronidase activity and histamine release (CAN).
2 g root (AHP); 2–4 g root, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1 tbsp fresh root (PED); 1.5 g dry root (PED); 1.5 g dry root:7 ml alcohol/8 ml water (PED); 2–4 ml liquid root extract (APA; PNC); 2–4 ml liquid root extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–10 ml root tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1 tsp liquid extract every 3–4 hours for urinary incontinence (MAD).
hydrangea paniculata
hydrastis canadensis
hydrastine, berberine
Class 2b. Fresh plant may irritate the mucosa (AHP). Not approved (KOM; PH2). “Goldenseal should not be taken for long periods of time” (Barney, 1996). The LRNP (June 1987) is a bit stronger, saying large doses of the plant may irritate the mouth and throat, and cause diarrhea, nausea, parasthesia, and vomiting. “CNS stimulation and respiratory failure induced by the plant can be fatal.” In higher doses hydrastine can cause convulsions, exaggerated reflexes, high blood pressure, and death from respiratory failure (LRNP, but quoting an old, old book). No recent reports of toxicity in the literature (SF). May alter intestinal flora. Canadian regulations do not allow it as an ingredient in oral products (Michols, 1995). Contraindicated in glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase deficiency. Berberine may antagonize heparin’s anticoagulant activity (PH2). The PDR last couplet in the PDR general warning may stimulate more sales, “If taken over an extended period, the drug can bring about digestive disorders, mucous membrane irritation, constipation, excitatory states, hallucinations, and occasional deliria” (PH2). The potentially poisonous berberine may cause gastric upset (CAN). Because of alkaloids with uterine stimulant activity, in vitro, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). Berberine is reportedly mutagenic in yeast cells and Ames test (intercalation into the DNA). PH2 assigns the toxicity more to hydrastine than to berberine, perhaps making barberry and oregon grape look like safer alternatives, with the benefit of the MDR-inhibitor methoxyhydnocarpine. “The hydrastine component appears to be the toxic component in goldenseal” (PH2). Overdoses may induce bradycardia, central paralysis, and dyspnea (PH2). Death from berberine has been reported (MAB).
0.5–1.2 g root (AHP; PNC); 0.5–1 g root, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1 g root, maximum 4.9 g/day (HHB); 4–6 g root/day (SKY); 150–350 mg root 3 ×/day; 1–2 tbsp fresh root (PED); 1.5–3 g dry root (PED); 2 g dry root:10 ml alcohol/10 ml water (PED); 500 mg dry root/day (APA); 0.5–1 tsp powdered root/cup water (APA); 0.3–1 ml liquid root extract (AHP; CAN; PNC); 2–4 ml root tincture (CAN; PNC); 2–4 ml root tincture (1:3)/day (MAB); 2–4 ml (20–40 drops) tincture (AHP); 1 dropper tincture 3 ×/day (APA); 15–40 drops fluid extract several ×/day (MAD); 1–4 g fluid extract/day (MAD); 4–6 ml liquid extract (SKY); 50–150 mg hydrastine-chlorate (MAD); 1–2 (535 mg) capsules 3 ×/day; 1 (465 mg) StX 2–3 ×/day (NH).
hyoscyamus niger
Not covered (AHP). Commission E reports leaf permitted for oral use. Same contraindications, adverse effects, and interactions as for belladonna alkaloids (AEH).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Overdoses may cause arrhythmia, deliria, dysuria, erythema, hallucinogens, lethargy, mania, mydriasis, obstipation, tachycardia, visual disturbance, water retention, and xerostoma. Contraindicated in arrhythmia, enlarged colon, GI stenosis, glaucoma, prostadenoma, pulmonary edema, and tachycardia (KOM; PH2). Leaves used as a sedative and a substitute for opium, where this is inadmissible as in children’s complaints (KAB).
Reporting dose levels of 0.05 g, 0.15 g, 0.65 g, 1.0 g, 3 g leaf, HHB recounts daily maximum doses of 1, 1.2, 1.5, 3, and 6 g leaf, smaller doses for powdered leaf; e.g., maximum daily dose of 0.6 g powdered leaf (HHB); 0.5 g powdered herb corresponding to 0.25–0.35 belladonna alkaloids (KOM; PHR); 0.4 g leaf in tea as a calming clyster (MAD).
hypericum perforatum
hypericin, hypericum, catechin, flavonoid, amentoflavone, novoimanine, imanine
Class 2d. May potentiate MAOIs (AHP). Active ingredients may be photoactive, especially in fair-skinned people. Reichert takes it even more seriously: Although hypericum is not as strong as synthetic MAOIs, patients should still avoid the things usually avoided: high tyramine foods (smoked or pickled), alcoholic beverages, amphetamines, cold and hay fever remedies, narcotics, tryptophan, and tyrosine (I no longer believe this caveat is desirable). Do not take during pregnancy or intense sun exposure (Reichert, 1994; WAM). Commission E reports adverse effect of photosensitivity. Other sources report flowering top permitted for external use only; not to be used before exposure to sunlight (AEH). Foster (1996) is moderate, suggesting that St. John’s-Wort should not be mixed with synthetic antidepressants. Because it may inhibit MAO, taking it with SSRIs, such as Prozac, could cause serious health damage. Although side effects have not been reported in clinical studies, range animals eating the plant and then standing in bright sunlight have experienced sunburn or blindness from photosensitization. This treatment option should be discussed with your health care provider (Foster, 1996). The Herbal PDR state that photodermatosis in animals usually kicks in after high doses, such as 3000 mg per kg body weight (PHR). CAN cautions that hypericin is phototoxic. “Mice given 0.2–0.5 mg of the herb were found to develop severe photodynamic effects. Delayed hypersensitivity or photodermatosis has been documented for St. John’s-wort, following the ingestion of a herbal tea made from the leaves” (CAN). ESCOP recommends a limited daily intake of 1 mg total hypericin (QRNM, 1997:292). Because of slight uterine activity in vitro, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). No contraindications or drug-drug interactions reported (PIP). A recent Internet message cautions about the potential for serotonin syndrome. Symptoms include chills, confusion, fever, myoclonus, hyperactive reflexes, myoclonus, speech difficulties, and sweating. Cannot be mixed with an SSRI. That is likely to produce serotonin syndrome—severe headache, tachycardia, and diaphoresis—which resembles neuroleptic malignant syndrome (O’Brien, 1998). Recently found to detoxify all the same drugs that grapefruit potentiates. It induces cytochrome P3A4 450, which speeds up metabolism of several drugs. Nierenberg et al., 1999 kindly remind us that, like synthetic antidepressants, this herbal antidepressant may rarely induce hypomania in manic patients. Poorly designed Loma Linda studies (Ondrizek) suggest that hypericum may interfere with fertility. But this was based on soaking “skinned human sperm” for 24 hours in hypericum tea as I recall. | Phototoxic reactions occur in some patients with AIDS given ivn injections of 30–40 mg hypericin. “Not suitable for use as daily sedatives of sleep aids. Preparations are no more effective than synthetic antidepressants,” but they are extremely well tolerated by the patients. In observational studies or >3000 cases, there is ca. a 3% incidence of minor side effects, cf 10–25% with modern nontricyclic antidepressants (SHT).
2–4 g dry herb (0.2–1 mg hypericin)/day (JAD); 2–5 g dry herb/day (MAB); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 2–4 g dry shoot, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 tsp (2–4 | consistent with doses of 900 mg extract in humans. LD50 = >5000 mg/kg. ivn injections of 30–40 mg hypericin.
hypoxis sp.
beta-sitosterol
60 mg beta-sitosterol/day (SHT).
hyptis verticillata
Handful of root and/or leaf boiled 10 minutes in 3 cups water, drink 1 cup warm before each meal (AAB).
I scored hyssop with three pluses (+++), meaning that I think it is safer than coffee as an herbal medicine.
hyssopus officinalis
pinocamphone, iso-pinocamphone, diosmin, ursolic acid
Class 2b. Emmenagogue and uterotonic (AHP).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Not to be used by pregnant women (WAM). Extracts (Hyssop) — Hyssop oil is powerfully neurotoxic, there have been several cases of epileptiform seizures. Hyssop is a convulsant because of its pinocamphone (40%) and iso-pinocam-phone (30%) content; this toxicity often refers to injections. At levels of 2.5 mg/kg, injections into dogs produced almost immediate epileptiform seizures. With rats it took more than 130 mg/kg. Intraperitoneal pinocamphone was a convulsant and lethal to rats at levels higher than 0.05 ml/kg. “Even dermal administration of hyssop oil should be avoided in those vulnerable to seizures” (Tisserand, 1995). Some EOs may be hazardous to people with epilepsy, especially those EOs that are rich in artemisia ketone, camphor, pinocamphone, pulegone, and thujone. Some scientists consider ketones in general to be highly stimulant to the CNS, and hence are contraindicated for people with epilepsy (Tisserand, 1995). According to the Lawrence Review on Natural Products (September 1996), hyssop, an ingredient in cold and cough preparations, appears to exert its demulcent and expectorant effects via its EO. However, injections of the oil may be convulsant and neurotoxic at 130 mg/kg, and a rodenticide at 1250 mg/kg, probably due to isopinocamphone and pinocamphone. Pinocamphone may be present at quantities as high as 13,000 ppm, isopinocam-phone at 6500 ppm. Intraperitoneal injections from 4 ml/kg to 200 ml/kg produce a generalized crisis in rats leading from CNS convulsions to death. Anti-HIV and antiviral activities need to be confirmed (LRNP, September 1996). Oral administration of the oil can also be dangerous. Three cases of clonic spasms have been reported, two adults each taking 10–30 drops each pure EO, and a 6-year-old child taking 2–3 drops a day over several days (KOM). Remember, I council in all cases against pure EO.
1–2 tsp herb/cup water up to 3 ×/day (APA); 2 tsp (55.8 g) herb in tea (MAD); herb mashed in honey taken several ×/day for worms (JFM); handful of herb boiled in 0.25 liter for toothache, applied topically (JFM); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (APA; PNC); 445 mg capsules (PH2); 1–2 drop EO as expectorant (WOI). | Dry hyssop of that strength would only take 10 grams to provide the 600 mg diosmin considered antiinflammatory and capillary-protective.
iberis amara
Not covered (AHP). Poisonings, not reported, could be caused by cucurbitacins and might exhibit colic, diarrhea, kidney irritation, and vomiting (PH2). No toxic cases documented (PH2).
Homeopathic doses only (PH2).
ilex aquifolium
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Ingesting more than five berries may induce diarrhea, gastroenterosis, nausea, and vomiting. Fatal GI inflammation is said to have taken place following the ingestion of very large quantities (20 to 30 berries). Poisonings have not been reported in recent times (MAD; PH2). Human fatality reported (ATM; MAD).
15–20 g leaf in tea (MAD).
ilex opaca
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Fruits considered poisonous, inducing violent vomiting (10–12 berries acts as strong laxative, emetic, and diuretic) (FAD).
ilex paraguariensis
caffeine, xanthine, theophylline, theobromine
Class 2d. CNS-stimulant. Not recommended for excess or prolonged use (they seem to say this about most caffeine-containing plants) (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). CAN cautions that xanthine-containing beverages may cause anxiety, insomnia, palpitations, tremors, and withdrawal headaches. Because of the caffeine, consumption should be restricted in pregnancy and lactation, and in patients with hypertension and cardiac problems. “As with all xanthine-containing beverages, excessive consumption ... by lactating mothers should be avoided. Caffeine is excreted in breast milk, but at concentrations too low to represent a hazard to breast-feeding mothers ... The fatal dose of caffeine in man is stated to be 10 g.” (CAN) Veno-occlusive disease has been attributed to overconsumption of maté for years. In Uruguay, where esophageal cancer is major, heavy consumption of maté seemed to elevate relative risks of cancer by “6.5 and 34.6 in men and women, respectively” (CAN).
1 tsp leaf/cup water (APA; WIC); 2–4 g leaf, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1 g leaf/cup tea (HHB); 3 g leaf/day (PH2; PIP); 2–4 ml liquid leaf extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2.5–5 ml liquid leaf extract (APA; PNC).
ilex vomitoria
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Warning: Many hollies are considered potentially toxic (FAD). MATÉ: Class 2d. CNS stimulant. Not recommended for excess or prolonged use (they seem to say this about most caffeine-containing plants) (AHP, speaking of maté, however, and not yaupon). CAN cautions that xanthine-containing beverages may cause anxiety, insomnia, palpitations, tremors, and withdrawal headaches. Because of the caffeine, consumption should be restricted in pregnancy and lactation, and in patients with hypertension and cardiac problems. “As with all xanthine-containing beverages, excessive consumption... by lactating mothers should be avoided.” “Caffeine is excreted in breast milk, but at
illicium verum
Class 1 (AHP). None known at proper dosage (KOM; PH2). While I consider star anise, properly identified, as safe as coffee, there are papers dealing with anethole intoxication in infants, relating the following symptoms to excess anethole ingestion: continuous crying, irritability, hypertonia, atypical ocular movements, twitching, cyanosis, and occasionally vomiting and refusal to take nourishment. They “conclude that the infusion of Illicium verum incorrectly administered, or in high doses, produces a neuro- logical toxic picture,” which must be considered in diagnosis. They advise against its use in infants (USDA abstract). One group has really analyzed star anise, in reporting three new toxins, that’s three strikes against star anise. Possibly they were analyzing Illicium anisatum, namesake of the toxin anisatin. Dentifrices containing anise and/or star anise oil may cause cheilitis (dry bleeding, cracking, and peeling lips) (RIN).
0.5–1 g powdered fruit (1 teaspoon = ~3.2 g) (BIS); 0.5–1 g seed/cup tea (HHB); 3 g herb or equivalent of 0.3 g EO (KOM; PHR; PH2).
impatiens capensis
lawsone
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). The reported emmenagogue and oxytocic activities of lawsone dictate caution in pregnancy (JAD). Failing to dye my beard red with jewelweed extracts, I fear it was only my cosmetological ignorance. Much later (2000), I read in EFS (ca. 1957), speaking of impatiens, “The juice of the plants is used in combination with alum by the natives of tropical countries to dye their nails.”
Unknown ID
Not covered (AHP). Aside from possible gastric irritation, no hazards or side effects are known with proper therapeutic dosages (PH2). Possibly allergenic (PH2). Plant contains cyanide, may cause blood poisoning leading to a chocolate-brown blood (WBB). Alcoholic root, shoot, and/or leaf extracts are active against Escherichia and Micrococcus (WO2).
15 g decoction laxative (CRC); 1–4 drachms juice as laxative (DEP); 100 g herb/liter water (PH2).
4–12 g edible fruit (KAP); 2–3 g root (HHB); 12–20 ml root tea (KAP); 0.5–1 g root extract (KAP); 30 drops root tincture 3 ×/day (DEP); 56–112 ml root decoction (KAP); 1–2 oz root bark decoction for malaria (KAB).
Tylophorine, Phenanthroindolizidine alkaloids
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Fresh leaves may cause nausea and vomiting (KEB). Alkaloids irritate the skin and are emetic (KEB). “Dried leaves may cause fatal poisoning” (WOI). Sore mouth, loss of taste, and/or vomiting, etc. occurred in 75% of patients after only 3–6 leaves. LD50 of the crude alcoholic extract of the drug was found to be 2 mg/kg (WOI). If correct this a very dangerous drug. That means less than a gram (200 mg) of the tincture could kill me. Until I have better information, I have given the herb the X for safety.
200–400 mg dry herb or 1–2 ml/day 1:5 tincture, for no more than 4 weeks; 2 (100 mg) capsules powdered leaf/day/6 day (SAB).
56–112 ml root decoction (KAP); 1–3 g powdered root (KAP); greens used as the food lalab in India (WOI).
indigofera tinctoria
inula britannica
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Sesquiterpene lactones with exocyclic methylene groups often irritant and sensitizing (PH2).
3–9 g flower in decoction in sealed sachet (PH2).
inula helenium
alantolactone, inulin, sesquiterpene lactones, EO (Essential Oil)
Class 2b, 2c (AHP). Elecampane is reportedly dermatitigenic; allergic contact dermatosis is possible. Can cause diarrhea, vomiting, spasm, and symptoms of paralysis (AEH; AHP; PHR; WAM). Not approved by Commission E, KOM, or PH2. Not for use during pregnancy or nursing (PH2; WAM). Commission E reports roots are not permitted for therapeutic use; usefulness not adequately documented. CAN cautions that sesquiterpene lactones, especially alantolactone, can be allergenic and irritant (CAN). Alantolactone is bound as a hapten to the skin proteins (KOM). May interfere with blood pressure and blood sugar therapies (CAN).
0.25 tsp powdered root/cup water (APA; WIC); 2–4 g powdered root (PNC); 1–2 tbsp fresh root (PED); 2–3 g dry root (PED); 3 g dry root:20 ml alcohol/10 ml water (PED); 0.5–2 g root, several ×/day (MAD); 1.5–4 g root as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 1.5–4 ml liquid root extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 300 mg (50–200 for children) alantolactone for 2 courses of 5 days with an interval of 10 days (CAN); 1 tsp (6 g) in cold or hot tea (MAD); 20- to 40-drop tincture for cholera (MAD); 1 g in tea/day (PH2); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PNC).
inula racemosa
Alantolactone
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Alantolactone is allergenic (KEB; WOI).
2–4 g dry root of 4–8 ml extract (1:2)/day (KEB).
ipomoea batatas (l.) lam.
Of the leaf, “Toxic substances have been reported and excessive ingestion is known to cause diarrhea, even death” (UPW). LD50 (50% ethanol extract) = >1000 mg/kg ipr mus (MPI).
ipomoea hederacea
Not covered (AHP). Laxative action may be accompanied by cramping. Possibly teratogenic, not for use during pregnancy (PH2). “Inadmissable in inflammatory states of the alimentary canal” (DEP).
0.5–3 g seed (HHB); 30–40 grains (DEP); Chinese Dosage 1.5–15 g drug (PH2); 24–30 g in tea (not for me).
ipomoea purga
Gruenwald (2000) warns of the likelihood of confusing Ipomoea orizabensis (for which he gives common names of Jalap, Mexican Jalap, and Mexican Scammony) and Jalap (Ipomoea purga). Since probably none of the chemical and pharmacological studies were of resins backed up by voucher specimens, I have aggregated the data here. | Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Jalap) — Not covered (AHP; KOM). Use of I. purga is obsolete. Overdoses (purga) may cause cramp, enterosis, gastrosis, nausea, and pain (PH2). But for orizabensis, “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Colic may be a side effect (PH2).
50–200 mg resin as stomachic, higher doses as laxative (MAD); children 100–300 mg, adults 300–1200 as laxative (MAD); 100–300 mg resin as maximum individual dose, up to 1.5 g day for jalap resin (PH2). Average 1 g for orizabensis resin (PH2).
ipomoea violacea
iris spp
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Orris) — Class 1. May irritate mucosa (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
iris versicolor
isatis tinctoria
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PH2).
2–3 g/day powdered leaf or root (AKT).
One fresh leaf/decocted cup, drink 1–3 cups/day for intestinal parasites (AAB).
jasminum officinale
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
jateorhiza palmata
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). High doses can lead to signs of paralysis and unconsciousness (PH2). LD50 (extract) = 2400–5000 mg/kg orl mouse (HH2).
0.5–2 g/day (HHB); 1 tbsp decoction every 2 hours (PH2); 5 g colombo wine (PH2); 20 drops liquid extract (PH2).
jatropha curcas
Too poisonous to toy around with. Poisoning may cause amnesia, convulsions, delirium, diarrhea, nausea, vertigo, and visual disturbances (MAD).
2 seeds purge but 4–5 may cause death (WBB).
jatropha gossypiifolia
juglans cinerea
Class 1 (AHP). Large doses mildly laxative, contraindicated in pregnancy (AHP). None known or listed (PHR; PNC). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Our best source of dietary serotonin, quickly broken down in the gut (where there are serotonin receptors). The combination of tannin with all its pesticidal activities and juglone may be pretty potent.
100–300 mg bark (HHB); 2–4 ml, 1:1 fluid extract (HHB); capsules 95 mg bark, 500 mg, 3500 mg (PH2); 1:1 Fluid Extract (PH2); 2–4 ml liquid bark extract (PNC); 0.3–0.5 g dry bark extract (PNC).
juglans nigra
juglans regia
Juglone, naphthoquinone constituent, serotonin
Class 2d. Juglone is mutagenic. External carcinogenic effects noted after chronic external use (AHP). None known for the leaf at proper dosage (KOM; PHR; PH2). Commission E reports fruit shell not permitted for therapeutic use; usefulness not adequately documented. Fresh shells contain the naphthoquinone constituent juglone, which is mutagenic and possibly carcinogenic. The juglone content of dried shells has not been studied adequately (AEH). Good source of dietary serotonin, quickly broken down in the gut (where there are serotonin receptors).
Five tsp chopped leaf/cup water (externally only; APA); 2–3 g leaf/100 ml water for compresses (KOM); 3–6 g (PHR); 4–8 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC).
Class 2b, 2d. Contraindicated in nephrosis and pregnancy (CAN). Not for continuous use beyond 4–6 weeks (AHP). Berry permitted for oral use. Commission E reports contraindications: pregnancy, nephrosis; adverse effects: prolonged use or overdosing may lead to renal damage. Other sources report contraindication: pyelitis (AEH). CAN caution that the volatile oil can be abortifacient and irritant. Because it is reputed to be abortifacient and to affect the menstrual cycle, and because there is confusion of whether the oil is toxic, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. “Excessive doses of terpinen-4-ol may irritate the kidneys. External application of EO can cause burning, edema, erythema, and inflammation with blisters” (CAN). Long-term use can cause hypocalemia. May also potentiate diuretics and hypglycemics (CAN). Overdose can cause hematuria, priapism, strangury, and uremic convulsions (MAD). “Canadian regulations do not allow juniper as a non-medicinal ingredient for oral use products” (Michols, 1995). “Herbs with diuretic properties, such as juniper and dandelion, can cause elevations in blood levels of lithium” (D’epiro, 1997). As an occasional gin imbiber, I found the following of interest, “Normally avoided during pregnancy, mainly because of the notorious reputation of gin, of which juniper is the main flavor ingredient” (PNC). Tisserand (1995),
56–74 ml tea (KAP); 10–15 berries/cup tea (MAD); 1 tsp (2–3 g) berries/150 ml water 3–4 ×/day, for up to 4 weeks (SKY); 1–2 g fruit several ×/day (MAD); 1–2 g fruit or equivalent 3 ×/day (CAN; SKY); 2 tsp (9.8 g) fruit in cold infusion (MAD); 1 tsp fresh fruit (PED); 0.5–1 g dry fr (PED); 1 g dry fruit:5 ml alcohol/5 ml water (PED); 100 ml dried fruit infusion (1–20 in boiling water) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–10 g dry fruit (corresponding to 20–100 mg EO) (KOM); 1–3 g powdered fruit (KAP); 2–4 ml liquid fruit extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 ml fruit tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN; SKY); 1–2 (-6) minims juniper oil (KAP); 0.03–0.2 ml juniper EO (CAN; PNC); 0.3–1.2 ml spirit of juniper (PNC); 1 tbsp juniper syrup morning or night (APA).
juniperus
terpinen-4-ol, podophyllotoxin
is reputed to be abortifacient and to affect the menstrual cycle, and because there is confusion of whether the oil is toxic, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. “Excessive doses of terpinen-4-ol may irritate the kidneys. External application of EO can cause burning, edema, erythema, and inflammation with blisters” (CAN). Long-term use can cause hypocalemia. May also potentiate diuretics and hypglycemics (CAN). Overdose can cause hematuria, priapism, strangury, and uremic convulsions (MAD). “Canadian regulations do not allow juniper as a non-medicinal ingredient for oral use products” (Michols, 1995). “Herbs with diuretic properties, such as juniper and dandelion, can cause elevations in blood levels of lithium” (D’epiro, 1997). As an occasional gin imbiber, I found the following of interest, “Normally avoided during pregnancy, mainly because of the notorious reputation of gin, of which juniper is the main flavor ingredient” (PNC). Tisserand (1995), after reviewing the literature, claims to debunk the many authors (including Duke, 1985), cautioning about abortifacient activity of juniper oil. He speculates that they are clouded by the sabine juniper, which apparently does have abortifacient activities. He found few references indicating abortifacient activity for juniper oil, and the references suggested that ethanolic and acetone extracts of juniper berries have antifertility activity in rats. “It seems inconceivable that the juniper oil could be responsible for the reproductive toxicity noted above. There is no reason to regard juniper oil as being hazardous in any way” (Tisserand, R., 1995). LD50 = 3000 mg/kg ipr mouse, LD50 = >3000 mg/kg orl rat (CAN).
juniperus communis
Nephrotoxic (f; APA).
juniperus sabina
Not covered (AHP). Oil irritant, in large doses a powerful poison; six drachms will kill a dog if retained in the stomach. Believed by the vulgar to possess the power of inducing miscarriage, and is sometimes taken by them for perpetrating this crime, bringing life into extreme danger (CEB). Even external application is dangerous, causing blisters, irritation, necrosis, and dermal poisoning (PH2). Attempts at abortion are often fatal, with arrhythmia, cramping, hematuria, kidney problems, paralysis, queasiness, and unconsciousness (PH2).
“Oil of Savin is much used for the purpose of producing abortion, in doses of 10–15 drops 2 or 3 ×/day, and is probably the most certain article for that purpose known; but if continued long is apt to occasion inflammation of the stomach and bowels.” (CEB). Maximum 1 g externally (PH2).
juniperus virginiana l.
continued use is apt to occasion inflammation of the stomach and bowels” (CEB).
“Oil of Savin is much used for the purpose of producing abortion, in doses of 10 to 15 drops 2 or 3 ×/day, and is probably the most certain article for that purpose known; continued use is apt to occasion inflammation of the stomach and bowels” (CEB).
justicia adhatoda
justicia pectoralis
kadsura japonica
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (False Schisandra) — Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1.5–6 g fruit (9–15 in Chinese people) (PH2).
kaempferia galanga
Class 1, but giving it the same common name as Alpinia galanga, greater galangal (AHP). Not covered, at least under the generic name Kaempferia (EFS; KOM; PH2).
kalmia angustifolia
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2).
Do not take it (JAD).
kalmia latifolia
Not covered (AHP). Fatally poisonous. May cause arrhythmia, bradycardia, cold sweats, diarrhea, dizziness, fever, headache, hypotension, parathesia, visual disturbances, perhaps death due to cardiac arrest and respiratory failure (PHR; PH2).
Homeopathic only (PH2).
kigelia africana
knautia arvensis
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
4 tsp (3.2 g) in hot tea (MAD); 4 tsp shoot in 2 glasses water/day (PH2).
krameria lappacea
Allergenic, Antihemorrhagic, Antiinflammatory, Antiseptic, Astringent, Expectorant, Fungicide, Hemostat, Vulnerary
Class 1. Commission E discourages use beyond 2 weeks unless so advised by physician. “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Internal application may induce digestive complaints due to antisecretagogue activity (PHR; PH2). Commission E reports root permitted for local use in the mouth only. No contraindications, adverse effects, or interactions except for rare allergic mucosal reactions. Other sources report undiluted tincture may produce burning and local irritation (AEH; AHP; KOM).
0.5–1.5 g powdered bark (HHB); 1.5–3 g (1 tsp = ~3 g) root (PH2); 1 tsp chopped root/glass water, gargle 2–3 ×/day (APA); 30 drops root tincture with a glass of water as a gargle (HHB); 1–2 tsp root tincture/glass of water (APA); 5–10 drops root tincture in glass of water, 2–3 ×/day (KOM); 2–4 ml root tincture (PNC); 0.3–1 g dry root extract (APA; PNC); 10 drops opium tincture and 20 drops rhatany tincture 3–5 ×/day for gastrosis (HHB).
laburnum anagyroides
Not covered (AHP). Too dangerous for use, even as a topical pediculicide. 3–4 unripe fruits or 15–20 seed enough to kill an adult (PH2). Pub Med abstracts seemed more concerned with poisoning and lectins than with folk medicine.
lachnanthes tinctoria
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR).
lactuca virosa
Lactucarium, Lactucin, lactupicrin, sesquiterpenes
Class 1 (AHP) but class 2b. Australians council against exceeding dosage. Contraindicated in BPH and glaucoma (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). I do not believe the CAN listing of hyoscyamine (usually in Solanaceae), nor morphine (only in poppy) in wild or tame lettuce. Lettuce may contain allergenic sesquiterpenes. Overgrazing on immature wild lettuce has caused dyspnea, pulmonary emphysema, and weakness in cattle. In view of the lack of toxicological data, and the possible allergic activity, excessive use, especially during lactation and pregnancy, should be avoided. Overdoses may cause coma, depressed respiration, dizziness, mydriasis, stupor, tachycardia, tinnitus, and even death (CAN; PH2). Lactucarium is mydriatic; Lactucin and lactupicrin are sedatives, but do not readily cross the blood-brain barrier.
0.5–3 g dry leaf, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.3–1 g soft leaf extract (CAN); 0.5–3 ml liquid leaf extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.3–1 g lactucarium (dried latex) 3 ×/day (CAN; HHB; MAD).
lagenaria siceraria
Young leaves and fruits, cooked, could or maybe even should be one of our five daily fruits and vegetables (100-g servings).
lagochilus inebrians
laminaria hyperborea
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). With doses over 150 µg/day iodide, one may induce or worsen hyperthyroid (PH2). May be allergenic (PH2).
lamium album
Class 1 (AHP). None known (KOM; PH2). Leaves are edible (WOI).
3 g flower (KOM); 4–6 tsp (2.4–3.6 g) flower in tea/day (MAD); 1 g flower/cup water 3 ×/day (PHR); 5 g flower for one sitz bath (KOM); 5–10 drops tincture several ×/day (MAD); for poultice, scald 50 g flowers with 500 ml water (PH2); add 5 g to bath (PH2).
lansium domesticum
Diabetics are warned against using the seed decoction (LMP). Children are forbidden from eating the fruits because exocarp (peel) causes pain in the larynx and small lumps on the mucous membrane (LMP). Peel of fruit is burned as a mosquito repellent in Java (LMP; WOI). Lansium acid, injected into a frog, caused heart failure in 3–4 hours (LMP).
lantana camara
larix decidua
Not covered (AHP). Commission E reports hypersensitivity to EOs, acute inflammation of respiratory tract (for inhalation; adverse effects: allergic skin reactions) (AEH; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper external therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1–2 ml tincture 1:7 (HHB); 300 mg EO (HHB).
larix laricina
Not covered (AHP). Sawdust can cause dermatosis.
larrea tridentata
Class 2d. Not for use in large amounts by persons with pre-existing kidney disease and liver conditions, such as hepatosis and cirrhosis (AHP). “Seek advice from a health care practitioner before use if you have any history of liver disease. Discontinue use if nausea, fever, fatigue, or jaundice occur (e.g., dark urine or yellow discoloration of the eyes)” (AHP). CAN cautions that the lignans may be hepatotoxic and cause dermatosis. Because of its hepatotoxic and uterine activity, its
Do not use (APA); 1 tsp shoot/qt water for mouthwash (APA); 2–4 tbsp herb (PED); 3–6 g dry herb (PED); 4.5 g dry herb:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED).
latua pubiflora
laurus nobilis
Sesquiterpene lactones (SLs), Artemorin, costunolide, costuslactone, deacetlylaurenobiolide, laurenobiolide, reynosin, santamarin, verlorin, parthenolide
Class 1 (AHP). None known at proper dosage (PHR). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (No dosage given, however) (PH2). Leaf and berry oil may cause severe lesions of the skin. Contact dermatosis from handling leaves or EO reported. Diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting from excessive doses of the EO may occur. Sesquiterpene lactones (SLs), are aromatic compounds widely distributed in certain plant families, with highest concentrations generally found in leaves and flowers. Sheep and cattle poisonings due to SL-containing species have been reported. Cases of allergic contact dermatosis in humans have also been reported (AEH). There have been a few unfortunate fatalities to people perforating their intestines with fragmented laurel leaves. Always remove them from your spaghetti and stew (JAD; TAD).
1–2 tsp leaf/cup water to 3 ×/day (APA); 1–2 drops EO added to brandy, honey, or tea (APA).
laurus nobilis l.
lavandula spp.
oleanolic acid (0.5%), ursolic acid (0.7%), Linalool, linalyl acetate
Class 1 (AHP). None known (KOM).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Uncut EOs not for internal use with children (WAM). Quoting Grieve’s A Modern Herbal (1931), I note that large dose of lavender oil constitute a narcotic poison that can cause death by convulsion. But I think one could say that about any EO.
1–2 tsp flower/cup water several ×/day, especially bedtime (APA); 1–2 tsp flowers/day (KOM; PIP); 20–100 g flower/20 liters bath water (KOM; PIP); 5–10 ml “drug” per 150 ml water, strain, 1 cup 3 ×/day (PH2); 2–3 tsp (3–4.5 g) in tea/day (MAD); more dangerously 8 drops oil (MAD); 1–4 drops (20–80 mg) oil/sugar cube (APA; SHT; PIP); 0.3–1.2 ml lavender spirit (PNC); 2–4 ml lavender tincture (PNC).
lawsonia inermis
Class 2a (AHP). Not covered (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Tannin may cause stomach problems (PH2). Extracts contain in vitro Mycobacterium tuberculosis as 5 mg/ml (X2125156); ethanol-water (1:1) extracts hepatoprotective with no effect on bile flow. MLD = >2000 mg/kg orl mouse (X1620739), LD50(ethanolic extract) = >1000 mg/kg ipr mouse (MPI).
3 g powdered leaf, internally, for ameba and ulcer (HHB; PH2).
ledum groenlandicum
Grayanotoxin
Not treated by AHP. “As efficacy has not been substantiated and there are risks, medicinal use is not recommended” (PIP). Contraindicated in pregnancy (PIP). Several reports of poisoning. EO, taken orally, violently irritates the GI tract with diarrhea and vomiting, and irritates the kidney and lower urinary tract, often with arthralgia, myalgia, perspiration, and central excitation with states of intoxication followed by paralysis (PIP). The plant is said to have narcotic properties that may cause delirium, paralytic poisoning, and even death (APA). Irritates skin and mucous membranes (KOM). Grayanotoxin can slow the pulse, lower blood pressure, and cause convulsions and even paralysis (APA).
1 tsp dry leaf/cup water (APA).
ledum palustre
EO, Ledol
Not covered (AHP). Commission E reports herb contains an EO which is a potent irritant of the GI tract, kidneys and urinary tract; other toxic effects include abortion. Contraindicated in pregnancy (AEH). Ledol causes cramps, diarrhea, and paralysis (DEM).
lemna minor
“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates only a homeopathic dosage! JAD).
One tsp fresh plant (MAD). Homeopathic (PH2).
geraniol
Class 2b. Very safe (AHP; JAD). Emmenagogue and uterotonic (AHP). TRAMIL suggest that grass teas be strained to remove fibers that may damage the stomach (TRA). Commission E reports herb and EO not permitted for therapeutic use. Allergic contact dermatosis occurs rarely (AEH). Citronella oil indicated in accidental poisoning of 21-month-old child. Volunteer testing revealed no toxic effects from lemongrass tea prepared from 4 g of plant, administered in a single dose or 2 weeks of daily oral doses. Higher amounts caused upset stomach (10 g) and diarrhea (4 g for 14 days) in volunteers. Polyuria was also reported by some volunteers (AEH).
1–4 g dry leaf/cup water (JAD); 1 mashed root and 10 leaves in 3 cups water for 10 min., drink hot before retiring for fever (AAB); 15 leaves in decoction for fever (JFM).
lentinus edodes
Class 1 (AHP). No contraindications known (WAM). Safety during pregnancy not established (SKY). High dosages may induce bloating and diarrhea (SKY). LEM used for recurrent stomach cancer in Japan, increasing survival rate, especially in combination with chemotherapy.
1–3 (606 mg) capsules up to 3 ×/day (APA); 6–16 g mushroom/day (SKY); extract 2–3 ×/day (SKY); 2–4 ml tincture (SKY).
leonotis leonurus
leonurus cardiaca
leonurus japonicus
Class 2b (AHP). Emmenagogue and uterotonic (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Overdoses (30 g or more) may generate chest oppression, debility, diaphoresis, dyspnea, and increased sensitivity to pain (PH2).
9–30 g herb; 6–9 g seed (FAY); 4–10 g in tea (PH2).
lepidium sativum
1–2.5 drachms seed (DEP); 1–3 fluid oz decoction 3–4 ×/day (DEP); none given (PHR).
Class 2d. Contraindicated in constipation and hypotension (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports hematological changes (e.g., leucocytopenia, lymphocytopenia, reduced globulin levels) have been observed in animals (AEH). Little cited as allergic or toxic (CRC). PH2 reports skin flushing and GI disturbances. Overdose may seriously lower blood pressure (PH2). LD50 “drug” 1400 mg/kg ipr mouse (HH2), LD50 “mixed alkaloids” 76 mg/kg ipr mouse (HH2), LD50 “mixed alkaloids” 24 mg/kg ivn mouse (HH2), LD50 “mixed alkaloids” 500 mg/kg orl mouse (HH2).
2–4 g powdered herb (PNC); 200 ml boiling water over 1 tsp herb, 2–3 cups/day (PH2); 15 g herb/250 ml water for infusion (PH2); macerate 100 g herbs in a liter of wine, steep 10 days (PH2); 2.5–5 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 2–5 g fluid extract (MAD).
leucanthemum vulgare
parthenolide, artecanin, canin, 3-beta-hydroxyparthenolide, secotanoparthenolide
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Oxeye Daisy) — Not covered (AHP). Leaves eaten as pot herb or salad (WO2). Large doses emetic (WO2). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Highly dermatitigenic (PH2). Warning: May cause contact dermatosis or cross–allergic reactions with other members of the daisy family (FAD).
1 cup 3 ×/day (PH2).
leucojum aestivum
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Emetic and poisonous, possibly edible after processing.
leucojum vernum
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Emetic and poisonous; possibly edible after processing (HHB). Bulb is emetic but said to be edible cooked (HHB).
levisticum officinale
Class 2b, 2d. Commission E reports contraindications: acute nephrosis, renal insufficiency; look out for photosensitivity when the root is used for a prolonged period (AEH; KOM). Not for use during pregnancy (PH2). Strongly diuretic in mice and rabbits; phthalides are anticonvulsant and sedative in animals (PNC).
4–8 g root/day (APA; KOM; PH2; SHT); 1–2 tsp (2–4 g) root/cup water, between meals, 2–3 ×/day (APA; PH2; WIC); 0.3–2 ml liquid root extract (APA; PNC).
liatris spicata
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Marsh Blazing Star) — Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
Dosages (Marsh Blazing Star) — 2 oz decoction 3–4 ×/day (GMH); homeopathic only (MAD).
glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhetinic acid, isoflavonoids, isoliquiritigenin, DGGL
Adverse effects reported in M30: amenorrhea, cardiac arrest, congestive heart failure, headache, hyperprolactinemia, high blood pressure, hypokalemia, muscle weakness, myoglobinuria, myopathy, and paralysis (Martindale’s 30th). As prolonged use/higher doses may give mineralcorticoid adverse effects/interactions, the root should not be used for more than 4–6 weeks without consulting a physician (PH2; WAM). Cantelli-Forti et al. (1994) note that “serious side effects related to glycyrrhizin ingestion, including headaches, edema, body weight increase, and disturbances in body-electrolyte balance were observed either after daily high LE personal consumption or in clinical use.” CAN cautions that excessive ingestion can cause hyperaldosteronism. Because of estrogenic activity and reputed abortifacient activity, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN; WAM).
Use as flavoring in doses providing no more than 100 mg of glycyrrhizin per day is also allowed (AEH; KOM). Oral DGGL (380 mg, 3 ×/day).
ligustrum lucidum
Class 1 (fruit) (AHP, 1997). Not covered by Commission E (KOM; PHR). Toxicity considered very low (FAY).
Experimentally in rat liver tissue 0.25 ng/ml (AEL); 4.5–15 g in decoctions, extracts, pills, powders, etc. (FAY).
ligustrum vulgare
Children reportedly have died from eating fruit (WBB).
lilium candidum
PH2 says apply a thick paste, made from fresh or cooked “onions” = lily bulbs, I presume.
lilium lancifolium
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Pollen poisoning in children may cause drowsiness, emesis, and purging (FEL).
1/8 to 5 drops strong plant tincture (MAD).
lilium lancifolium thunb.
lilium martagon
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
lilium martagon l.
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
Not covered (AHP). No specific quantified dosage designated (PH2).
linaria vulgaris
1.5 g herb/cup (HHB); 1–2 tsp (1.3–2.6 g) in herb infusion (MAD); 1–2 tsp drug/2–4 cups water, steep 18 minutes, drink throughout the day (PH2); externally as poultice (PH2).
lindera benzoin
laurotetanine
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Stems contain laurotetanine, a potentially cytotoxic alkaloid.
“The decoction may be drunk freely” (FEL).
linum catharticum
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Small doses are laxative; larger doses are emetic and laxative, causing gastroenterosis.
2.5 g/cup tea (HHB); 2 g powdered herb/cup (MAD); 2–3 tsp (4.8–7.2 g) hot tea/day (MAD); 2 g herb/cup tea (PH2).
linum usitatissimum
lippia javanica
caryophyllene, p-cymene, ipsdienone, linalool, myrcene
One report of gangrene caused by a poultice of the leaves (ZUL). Ingestion may cause photodermatosis in cattle. No confirmation of the plant’s toxicity (WBB).
liquidambar orientalis
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Ingestion may lead to diarrhea. Possibly allergenic (PH2). Broad topical application may lead to transdermal absorption followed by kidney damage (albuminuria or hemorrhagic nephritis) (PH2).
10–20 grains resin (FEL).
liriodendron tulipifera
liriodenine
Not covered (AHP; KOM).
0.5 oz powdered root bark/pint water and fortified in alcohol, adults take half or whole wineglass full 3 ×/day before meals (CEB); 4–8 g bark (PH2); 20 grains to 2 drachm powdered bark (FEL); 1–2 fluid oz bark infusion (FEL); 60 g bark decoction (30:500)/day (PH2); 5–10 g liriodenine (FEL).
liriodendron tulipifera l.
lithospermum erythrorhizon
alkannan, cycloshikonin, dihydroshikonin, shikonin
Not covered (AHP). Too toxic for internal use due to pyrollizidine alkaloids with 1,2-unsaturated necic parent substances (PH2). High oral doses cause diarrhea in mice (HH3). LD50 (ether root extract) = 40 mg/kg ipr mouse (HH3), LD50 (ether root extract) = >5000 mg/kg orl mouse (HH3), LD50 (water root extract) = >5000 mg/kg ipr mouse (HH3), LD50 (water root extract) = >10,000 mg/kg orl mouse (HH3).
Do not take it (JAD); 3–10 g (HH3); 5–8 g root for smallpox (PH2).
lithospermum officinale
Not covered (AHP; PH2). If it contains the same shikonins and PAs, or nearly so, as the Chinese Lithospermum, it should probably be avoided.
1 oz dry root/pint water; 1 tsp every 3 hours (FEL); 1/2 tsp powdered seed every 44–45 hours (FEL).
lithospermum ruderale
Not covered (AHP; PH2). If it contains the same shikonins and pyrrolizidine alkaloids, or nearly so, as the Chinese Lithospermum, it should probably be avoided.
1 oz dry root/pint water, 1 tsp every 3 hours (FEL); 0.5 tsp powdered seed every 4–5 hours (FEL).
lobaria pulmonaria
1–2 g in hot herb tea/day (HHB); 2 tsp lichen (1.6 g) in hot tea (MAD).
lobeline
Class 2b, 2d. May cause nausea L and vomiting. Cardioactive (AHP; WAM). APA gives it their negative 5 rating, “definite health hazard to using this substance internally, even in recommended amounts.” I’d consider the risks of smoking versus the risk of lobeline and might opt for the lobeline, perhaps first trying transdermal lobelia plants taped to my arm. I’m not even keen on transdermal nicotine, but I find it perhaps healthier than smoking, and it doesn’t affect my neighbors with second-hand smoke. The alkaloid lobeline can cause cough, diarrhea, dizziness, nausea, tremors, and vomiting (CAN). Overdose may cause coma, convulsions, diaphoresis, hypotension, hypothermia, tachycardia, and even fatality. Because of lobeline and its toxicity, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN; WAM). 0.6–1 g leaf is toxic, 4 g fatal (PHR; PH2).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
100 mg leaf as expectorant (AHP); 2–6 tsp fresh leaf (PED); 1–3 g dry leaf (PED); 2 g dry leaf:10 ml alcohol/10 ml water (PED); 0.2–0.6 g herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 50–600 mg herb/day (HHB); maximum dose 100 mg dry herb up to 3 ×/day (MAD); 4–10 drops herb 3 ×/day with water or juice (NH); 0.2–0.6 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 50% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.6–2.0 ml herb tincture (BPC) (CAN); 1–4 ml lobelia tincture (1:10 in dilute acetic acid) (CAN); 10–20 drops (0.5–1 g) leaf tincture, up to several ×/day (MAD).
lobelia inflata
lobelia siphilitica
lobelia tupa
lobelia tupa l.
lolium temulentum
Not covered (AHP). Can be toxic; no cases of poisoning are known in recent times (PHR). Symptoms include colic, confusion, cramping, delirium, diarrhea, gastroenterosis, headache, paralysis, somnolence, speech problems, staggering, tinnitus, vertigo, visual disorders, and rarely, death through respiratory failure (DEP; MAD; PH2).
Don’t take it. Many of the indications and dosages are homeopathic only.
piperine, N-isobutyl-deca-trans2,trans4-dienamide, piplartine
No modern dosages uncovered. 1–2 g ground fruit could provide biologically active levels of piperine. Old peppers are believed to be more medicinally active than fresh peppers (DEP).
lonicera caprifolium
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (KOM).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Overdose (saponin template) may cause bladder, GI, nephritic, and urinary inflammation and irritation (PH2). Ingestion of 10 or more berries may cause cyanosis, exanthema, fever, nausea, tachycardia, and vomiting (PH2).
Drug obsolete (PH2).
lonicera japonica
Class 1 (AHP). Though flowers are reported as foods in Asia, I think of it as more medicine than food, but good antibiotic medicine (JAD). Though active against Mycobacterium, Salmonella, Staphylococcus, and such viruses as HIV and influenza, the flowers are almost innocuous. Subcutaneous LD50 in mice is 53,000 mg/kg, some 40–400 times less toxic than the oral LD50 of caffeine in mice. See FNF.
Dosage in China: 9–15 g dried flowers in decoction, pills, powder, or poultice of the powder (Foster and Yue, 1992); 10 g flower/cup water (APA). I use a handful of stripped leaves (even in winter) and stripped winter buds of Forsythia, with some straggling antiviral blackberry and raspberry leaves in winter. When leaves are unavailable, rare in January in Maryland, I just use the twigs, knowing that they too are loaded with antiviral tannin. I boil them for some 5–10 minutes, then strain and add lemon juice or powdered lemonade and sweetener. In summer I dangerously add one cyanidiferous wild cherry leaf, and less dangerously lemonbalm, both also loaded with antiviral phytochemicals.
lophophora williamsii
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Peyote) — Not covered (AHP). May cause aural, kinesthetic, synesthetic, and visual hallucinations (PH2).
Dosages (Peyote) — 400–700 mg mescaline (to cause hallucinations).
Unknown ID
Oxoushinsunine
Class 2d. Seed is contraindicated in constipation and stomach distention. Other cited parts are Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Oxoushinsunine is cytotoxic against carcinoma of the nasopharynx (MPI).
Mostly food farmacy. Mary Jo gave me some seed for Christmas 1999. Seeds are tough on the teeth. 4–6 g powdered seed (KAP); 1–2 g pollen (KAP); 3–5 drams root tea (KAP).
luffa acutangula
LD50 (50% Ethanolic Extract) = 1000 mg/kg ipr mouse (MPI).
1.5–2 g to 10 seed as demulcent (KAP); 5–10 g fruit juice (KAP); 28–56 ml infusion (KAP). LD50 (50% Ethanolic Extract) = 1000 mg/kg ipr mouse (MPI).
luffa aegyptiaca
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Extracts are antimelanomic, and inactivate ribosomes (IJP35:212). Aqueous seed extract is active against leukemia at 4–8 mg/kg (KAP).
luma chequen
lupinus luteus
Not covered (AHP). Toxic to animals (WOI). A single seed may intoxicate a child; symptoms of intoxication include cardiopathy (arrhythmia), diarrhea, difficulty in swallowing, double vision, headache, hypocyclosis, prickling sensations in extremities, and salivation (PH2). One pod or 10 seeds can be an emetic in adults and should be followed by activated charcoal (PH2).
lycium barbarum
Class 2b (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
6–12 g fruit (FAY); 6–15 g fruit (PH2).
lycium chinense
Dosages (Wolfberry) — 9–15 g fruit/day in tea (FAY); sip tea through the day for pertussis (PH2).
lycoperdon spp.
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
Food farmacy (JAD).
lycopersicon esculentum
lycopersicon esculentum mill.
lycopodium clavatum
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Large doses are emetic (MAD).
1.5 herb (HHB); 1–5 g powder/day (MAD); 2–3 cups tea/day (PH2).
lycopus europaeus or lycopus virginicus
Class 2b, 2c, 2d. Contraindicated in thyroid enlargement or hypothyroid, and in simultaneous administration of other thyroid treatments (AHP). Long-term use can cause thyroid enlargement. “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Avoid sudden withdrawal; may increase prolactin secretion (SHT).
Take only under doctor’s supervision (APA); 1–2 drachms dried herb (FEL); 2 drachms to 4 fluid oz strong tincture (FEL); 1–2 g dry herb/tea (PH2); 0.7–2 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 0.2–2 g/day crude drug (SHT).
lysimachia nummularia
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
2 tsp herb/250 ml water, take 1 cup 2–3 ×/day (PH2).
lysimachia vulgaris
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
lythrum salicaria
macrocystis pyrifera
“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Not for use in thyropathic-prone families; more than 300 µg/day may cause hyperthyroidism. If the alga contains 0.3% (between the 0.1 and 0.5% cited by PH2), then a gram of wet alga (assuming 90% water) would give you that flagged dangerous dose (300 µg/day).
magnolia virginiana
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
0.5–1 drachm bark 5–6 ×/day (FEL); 2–4 g powdered bark (PNC); 2–4 ml liquid bark extract (PNC); 1–4 fluid drachms tincture (2 oz cones/pint brandy) 3–4 ×/day (FEL).
mahonia aquifolium
berberine, 5'-methoxyhydnocarpin (5'-MHC)
Class 2b. Canada requires bilingual warning against use during pregnancy (AHP). “Not allowed as a non-medicinal ingredient in oral use products in Canada” (Michols, 1995). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). If Barney is right in saying that “goldenseal should not be taken for long periods of time,” I suspect that the same would be true for those herbs containing similar compounds, such as barberry, goldthread, oregon grape, and yellow root (Barney, 1996). Therefore, I have lowered their safety ratings to one +. “Large doses of berberine can cause fatal poisoning” (CRC). White and Mavor preclude use in children under 1 year old, or during pregnancy (WAM).
0.5 tsp root bark/cup water 1 ×/day (APA); 2 g root bark (HHB); 1–2 ml liquid root extract (APA; PNC); 10–20 drops fluid extract/3–4 hours (FEL); 0.3–1.5 g fluid extract (MAD); 0.6–3.75 g tincture (MAD).
Unknown ID
deoxyvasicine, vasicine, vasicinone, quercetin
Not covered (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Contraindicated in pregnancy except in assisting delivery (KEB). Potency of vasicine may be accentuated with piperine.
1–20 grains for asthma and bronchosis (DEP); 1–2 g powdered leaf; 2 g powdered leaf (KAP); 8–16 ml leaf juice (KAP); 10–30 g powdered root bark (KAP); 28–56 ml bark decoction (KAP); 0.5–1.5 g dry herb/day or 1–3 ml day fluid extract (1:2) (KEB); 2–4 ml tincture; 1–2 ml liquid 1:1 extract (PH2; PNC).
mallotus philippensis
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Large doses may cause colic, cramping, diarrhea, GI distress, and nausea (DEP; HHB; MAD).
2–15 g (HHB); 10 g powder/day (1.5–3 g child) (MAD).
malus domestica borkh.
Not covered (AHP; KOM).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
Boil tart apple in 1 pint water for fever (FEL).
malva pusilla
malva sylvestris
Analgesic, Antiinflammatory, Antiseptic, Astringent, Demulcent, Diuretic, Emollient, Enterotonic, Expectorant, Pectoral, Uterotonic
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). None reported (PIP). None known (WAM). Demulcent and mucilaginous, the plant (5 g leaf/day) has been approved by Germany’s Commission E for irritations of the mucosa of the mouth and throat and associated dry cough (KOM).
1.5 g flower/cup water (HHB); up to 5 g flower/day (HHB); 5 g flower or leaf/day (PIP); 2–3 tsp (3.2–4.8 g) leaf in cold tea (MAD); 3–5 g/cup 2–3 ×/day (PH2); 2–8 ml liquid extract (PNC).
mandragora officinarum
Unknown ID
Class 3 (AHP). Canada does not allow its use in food products (AHP).
15–30 drops root tincture (HHB); homeopathic only these days (PH2).
mangifera indica
Water-soluble fraction, carotenoid fraction
LD50 (50% ethanolic extract) = >1000 mg/kg ipr mouse.
20–30 grains powdered seed for worms (DEP).
manihot esculenta
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). 36 drops of bitter cassava juice killed a man in 6 convulsive minutes (IED).
maranta arundinacea
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Canadian law disallows as nonmedicinal ingredient for oral products (AHP).
2–3 drachms boiled in 1 pint milk or water (FEL); 15 g starch dissolved in 250 cc sweet water for dysentery (JFM).
pycnogenol, proanthocyanidins, phenolics, flavonoids, OPCs
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Maritime Pine) — Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Although I have scored maritime pine based mainly on its pycnogenol, and reported activities of pycnogenol, all plants containing similar levels of related OPCs might deserve the same scores. I strongly suspect that all woody plants contain OPCs and possibly even pycnogenol sensu latu if not sensu stricto. “Pycnogenol is a registered trademark of Horphag Research for their patented proprietary extract of French maritime pine bk” (JAD) I have no strong reason to believe that french maritime pine bark is better or worse than other tree barks as sources of OPCs. I prefer peanuts as food.
Dosages (Maritime Pine) — Pinebark is eaten in survival situations, hence I call it Food Farmacy (JAD); 60–100 mg bark extract/day, standardized for 95% pycnogenol (including proanthocyanidins, phenolics and flavonoids) (NH); 50 mg pycnogenol 3 ×/day for 2 months (X11351356).
marrubium vulgare l.
HOH extracts, EO, Marrubiin
Class 2b. Emmenagogue and uterotonic (AHP). Five cups may cause arrhythmia (APA). None known (KOM; PHR). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). APA notes that, to my confusion and consternation, the FDA “banned horehound” from OTC remedies in 1989, finding no convincing support for efficacy. Their German counterparts approved the herb a year later for colds, coughs, and dyspepsia with its accompanying gas and anorexia (APA). The plant juice from white horehound is an irritant and may cause dermatosis (CAN). Because it is reputed to be abortifacient, and reputed to affect the menstrual cycle, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). Lack of toxicity data and suggested cardioactive properties suggest it should not be taken in excessive doses. Larger doses are laxative (CAN). Contraindicated in cardiopathy, hypertension, and pregnancy (WAM). Large doses are possibly arrhythmigenic or laxative (AHP; WAM).
1.5 g/cup (HHB); 4–5 g herb (KOM); 2–3 tsp (3.4–5.1 g) herb; 1–2 g herb in tea 3 ×/day (APA; CAN); 1.5 g chopped herb/cup water several ×/day (WIC); 1–2 g powdered herb (PNC); 4 g powdered herb (MAD); 1 drachm herb (FEL); 2–4 oz herb tea or syrup (FEL); 2–4 ml herbal syrup (APA; PNC); 2–4 ml concentrated herb infusion (PNC); 2–6 tbsp fresh juice (KOM); 30–60 ml expressed herb juice (PHR); 2–4 ml liquid herbal extract (1:1 in 20% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC).
marsdenia cundurango
matricaria recutita
Class 1, 2b (AHP; CAN; KOM). No contraindications, drug interactions, or side effects known (KOM). None reported (PIP).
2–4 tbsp fresh flower (PED); 3–6 g dry flower (PED); 4.5 g dry flower:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 2–8 g flower (PNC); 2–8 g flower 3 ×/day (WHO); 2–8 g flower as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–3 tsp flower/cup water; 0.5–1 tsp tincture to 3 ×/day (APA); 1–5 g several ×/day (HHB); 2–4 g 3 ×/day (MAB); 2–3 g per cup 3–4 ×/day; 10–40 drops tincture 3 ×/day (SF); 4–6 ml tincture 3 ×/day between meals (SKY); 7–14 ml tincture (1:5)/day (MAB); 1–4 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 3–6 ml/day liquid extract (1:2) (MAB); 1–4 ml, 1:1 fluid extract, 3 ×/day (WHO); 0.5–4 ml liquid floral extract (PNC); 2–3 (350 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (NH).
maytenus ilicifolia
Maytansines, Maytenin
“Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) Maytansines embryotoxic and teratogenic. Not for use during pregnancy. Maytenin antiseptic, antimelanomic, antitumor, and antiulcer, especially against basal cell carcinoma (PH2). Prevents ulcers in animals and humans (PH2).
100–400 ml decoction/tea (2–5%) (HH2; PH2); 5–20 g powdered leaf (PH2); 25–100 ml tincture (PH2).
Salicylates, Salicin
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). For the flower, Commission E reports hypersensitivity to salicylates (AEH). Overdosage might cause gastric distress and queasiness (PHR). In view of the lack of toxicological data, excessive use, especially during lactation and pregnancy, should be avoided. Contraindicated with aspirin or salicylate allergy due to potential for cross-reactivity (O’Brien, 1998). Individuals with aspirin hypersensitivity, asthma, diabetes, gout, hemophilia, hepatosis, hypothrombinemia, nephrosis, and peptic ulcers should be cautious with salicylates. Alcohol, barbiturates, and oral sedatives may potentiate salicylate toxicity. Beware of salicylate interaction with oral anticoagulants, methotrexate, metoclopramide, phenytoin, pronebecid, spironolactone, and valproate. Salicylates excreted in breast milk reportedly can cause macular rashes in breast-fed babies (CAN). Avoid use during viral infections (WAM).
1–2 tsp flowers in tea several ×/day (APA); 1 tbsp flowers/cup, 1–2 cups in morning (HHB); 2.5–3.5 g flowers (KOM; MAB; PH2; PIP); 2–4 ml liquid flower extract (APA); 4–5 g herb (KOM; MAB; PH2; PIP); 4–6 g herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1.5–6 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml herb tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
medicago sativa
Stachydrine, l-homostachydrine, canavanine, Purines, Porphyrins, Saponins, apigenin, manganese
Class 1 (AHP). PHR is too kind with their usual template. None known with proper dosage (which they don’t define) (PH2). Stachydrine and l-homostachydrine, in the seeds, may be emmenagogue and lactogenic. One patient died from listerosis after ingesting contaminated alfalfa tablets (LRNP, March 1991). Seeds and/or sprouts may contain 13,000 ppm canavanine, which may be implicated in hypo- complementenemia, lupus, and pancytopenia. Canavanine, a toxic amino acid, may cause systemic lupus erythematosus syndrome (CAN). Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)-like manifestations, skin reactions, gastrointestinal disturbances, raised serum urate levels are symp- toms that have been associated with alfalfa use in humans. Seeds should not be ingested during pregnancy or lactation (CAN). May cause stomach upset and diarrhea. Believed by some herbalists to be helpful in delaying absorption of cholesterol and dissolving plaque deposits on arterial walls (TMA). Consumption of alfalfa tablets contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes was linked to a fatal case of listerosis. One case of allergic reaction (from contamination with grass pollen) in alfalfa tablets has been reported (SF2). Flatulence, abdominal discomfort, loose stools, diarrhea, and loss of appetite may result from ingesting large amounts of alfalfa seeds (120 g/day).
1–2 tsp dry leaf/cup water 3 ×/day (APA); 5–10 g/herb/day (CAN); 6–12 g/dry herb/day (PED); 5–10 ml tincture (1:1 in 25% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 15–30 drops tincture 4 ×/day (SF2); 3–4 (370 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (NH); 1–2 (500 mg) capsules/day (SF); 8–9 (400–500 mg) capsules/day (SF2).
melaleuca alternifolia
terpinen-4-ol, cineole
Not covered (AHP). None at designated doses (PH2). Topical and vaginal irritation have been reported, but the “topical use of the oil has not generally been associated with toxicity.” Still, “the topical use ... cannot be recommended at this time” (LRNP, January 1991). As with most EOs, this one may induce dermatosis in sensitive individuals. Naturopaths Yarnell and Meserole (1996) caution that tea tree oil “must not be applied to allergic dermatosis (eczema) because it will make this condition worse.” For external use only with small children, diluted 1 to 2 drops tea tree oil to 1 tsp of another oil (almond, olive, etc.) (WAM). Not for internal use (WAM). Overdosage (10 ml in child) led to confusion and discoordination, 70 ml led to coma (PH2).
Topical as directed StX (>30% terpinen-4-ol <15% cineole); 0.05–0.2 ml cajuput oil (PNC); 0.3–2 ml cajuput spirit (PNC).
melaleuca cajuputi
melaleuca leucadendra
cineole
Not covered (AHP). No health hazards or side effects noted with proper administration (PHR; PH2). Do not apply near nostrils of pediatrics, may cause serious glottal spasms (KOM; PHR). More than 10 g cajuput oil may induce life-threatening intoxication, due to cineole, with circulatory and respiratory disorders, hypotension, and possible collapse (PH2). Topical and vaginal irritation have been reported from similar oils from other species of Melaleuca, but the topical use of the oil has not generally been associated with toxicity. Still, the topical use cannot be recommended at this time (LRNP, January 1991). As with most EOs, this one may induce dermatosis in sensitive individuals.
Oil used as a monopreparation, externally as a 5% alcohol solution (KOM); topical use only, dosage not specified (PH2); 0.05–0.2 ml Cajuput oil (PNC); 0.3–2 ml Cajuput spirit (PNC).
melaleuca viridiflora
cineole
Blumenthal et al. (1998) and Fleming et al. (1998) are rougher on this one than the cajuput (and of course they did not even index or cover tea tree). For that reason, I score it only + for safety. Fleming et al. (1998) after issuing their usual template, which suggests that no health hazards or side effects have been noted with proper administration (no internal dosage defined) (PHR). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Contraindicated internally in gallduct or GI or biliary inflammations, or severe liver ailments. Internal administration of niauli oil may lead to diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. Do not apply near nostrils of pediatrics, may cause asthma-like attacks, bronchial spasm, glottal spasms, and even respiratory failure (KOM; PHR). Confusingly calling it caje rather than niauli oil, and noting that it contains 35–60% cineole, Fleming et al. say that cineole causes induction of enzymes involved in liver detoxification, thereby possibly short-ening or lessening the effects of other drugs that might have been coadministered. (I suppose we can say that about all aromatic plants that contain significant quantities of cineole, and many do; what level of cineole is significant?) As with most EOs, this one may induce dermatosis in sensitive individuals. Fleming et al. even warn that overdosages (more than 10 g), can lead to life threatening poisonings, due to the cineole. Ten grams of niauli oil could contain 6 g cineole. Symptoms include circulatory disorders, collapse, fall in blood pressure, and respiratory failure. Do not induce vomiting, say Fleming et al., rather give activated charcoal (PHR).
Internal: single dose 0.2 g oil, daily dose 0.2–2 g (KOM); nose drops (2–5% in vegetable oil) (KOM); external: 10–30% in oil (KOM).
Melatonin
Doses <8 mg have reportedly induced heavy head, headache, and transient depression. May aggravate depression in patients with psychiatric illness. JAMA cautions that “some studies suggest melatonin may deepen depression in those who have it or induce it in those susceptible to it.” Melatonin in physiological doses causes vasoconstriction and also constricts cerebral arteries” (in rats). (JAMA) Melatonin has no LD50. Additional possible adverse effects mentioned in the NIH workshop included inhibition of fertility, suppression of male sexual drive, hypothermia, and retinal damage. (Possibilities of gynecomastia and low sperm count disappeared in one man when he discontinued melatonin.) Some people taking as little as 3 mg tell me it’s too much and gets them wired, reporting better insomnia protection with smaller doses.
0.5–3 mg melatonin at bedtime.
melia azedarach
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Chinaberry) — Class 3 (AHP). Not covered (PHR). Fatality reported in a child who ate the berries (DEP). Six to eight seeds said to cause choleraic symptoms, nausea, and spasm, sometimes followed by death (DEP). LD50 (50% ethanolic extract) = 250 mg/kg ipr mouse (MPI).
Dosages (Chinaberry) — 5 g leaf/500 g water for parasites (JFM); 1–1.9 g root for parasites (JFM); 1–2 g powdered root (KAP); 1–2 g powdered fruit (KAP); 56–112 ml bark decoction (KAP); 56–112 ml leaf decoction (KAP); 56–112 ml root bark decoction (KAP); 4–12 ml tincture (KAP); 28–84 ml flower tea (KAP); 4–10 minims oil (KAP).
melilotus officinalis
coumarin, Dicoumarol, umbelliferone
Not covered (AHP). Commission E reports no contraindications, adverse effects, or interactions, except for headache (rarely) (AEH; KOM; PH2). Coumarins in moldy hay cause uncontrolled bleeding in cattle (FAD). High doses can cause headache, stupor, and elevated liver enzymes (clears up on discontinuance) (PHR). Nephrotoxic in rats (0.8–1.71 mM/kg) (MAB). Carcinogenic (200 mg/kg orl mouse) (MAB). Low doses of coumarin, like aspirin, reduce chemically induced endothelioma, rendering them useful in ischemic heart disease (MAB). “Coumarin has been used to treat brucellosis in humans, and other chronic infections, including mononucleosis, mycoplasmosis, toxoplasmosis, Q fever, and psittacosis” (MAB). Dicoumarol is >1000 times better than coumarin as an antiaggregant (MAB). Grapefruit juice slows body conversion of coumarin to umbelliferone. (MAB).
Pour 150 ML boiling water over 1–2 tsp finely chopped herb, strain, let cool, and drink 2–3 cups/day for phlebitis (BIS); 2 tsp (4.2 g) herb cold tea/day (MAD); 1–2 tsp powdered herb/cup, steep 5–10 minutes, 2–3 cups/day for varicose veins (PH2); herb in amounts equivalent to 3–30 mg coumarin (KOM); parenterally 1–7.5 mg coumarin (KOM); 1 mg/kg coumarin, equivalent to ca. 10 ml/day liquid extract (1:2) (MAB).
melissa officinalis
citral, neral, geranial, beta-caryophyllene, citronellal, citronellol, tannins
Class 1 (AHP). None known (KOM; PHR; WAM). Safer than coffee in my book and in AHP’s book as well. People with glaucoma should avoid the EO, citral may raise ocular eye pressure (JAR10:7; SKY). At high doses (185 mg/kg/day/3 months, citral may produce benign prostatic hyperplasia (JAR10:7). APA advises patients with Graves disease to avoid the herb, while PHR indicates some potential for utility. Most of my readings suggest its use in Graves disease.
1–3 tsp herb/cup water (APA); 1.5–2 g/cup tea (HHB); 1.5–4.5 g/cup water (KOM); 2–3 tsp (3.2–4.8 g) hot tea/day (MAD); 8–10 g herb (PHR); 2–6 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 0.5–1.5 tsp tincture 3 ×/day (APA); 2–3 ml tincture 3 ×/day (PNC).
menispermum canadense
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR).
mentha aquatica
Not covered (AHP). None reported at proper dosing (PH2).
30 g leaf/500 ml water (PH2). As a daily dose, drink a wine glassful during the course of the day (PH2).
mentha arvensis
PH2 indicates it for “liver and gallbladder complaints” but contraindicates it for “gallbladder inflammation and severe liver damage.” Ask your doctor (JAD, mimicking TV commercials).
mentha canadensis
Commission E reports contraindications for EO: biliary obstruction, gallbladder inflammation, severe liver damage; adverse effects: gastric complaints. Not to be inhaled by small children (AEH).
mentha longifolia
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Direct application of the mint is said to be an irritant (WBB). Fractions containing phenolics may exhibit CNS-stimulant and spasmogenic activities.
mentha piperita
tannin, OPCs, polyphenols, pycnogenols
Class 1 (AHP).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Not to be used in patients with achlorhydria, biliary or gallbladder obstruction, or gallstones. Concentrated oil may induce dermatosis, flushing and headache, if rubbed on profusely or inhaled. Leaf contains much astringent tannin that can damage the liver and intestine with prolonged use (PED). Commission E reports contraindications for EO: biliary obstruction or inflammation, and severe liver damage. Since the more widely used tea (Camellia sinensis) often contains twice as much tannin as peppermint, this recommendation should be doubly pertinent under tea, or maybe we should name these tannins the more glamorous “OPCs, polyphenols, and pycnogenols” and declare them antioxidant good guys instead of hepatotoxic bad guys (JAD). Rats receiving 100 mg/day peppermint oil develop dose-related brain lesions. Because of its ability
1 tbsp (1.5 g) leaf/cup water 3–4 ×/day (APA); 1–2 g leaf/cup 3 ×/day; 0.25–0.5 cup fresh leaf (PED); 6–12 g dry leaf (PED); 6–9 g dry leaf/day (MAB); 1–2 tsp dry leaf/cup water up to 3 ×/day (APA; SKY); 9 g dry leaf/45 ml alcohol/45 ml water (PED); 2 tsp (4.4 g) herb in hot tea (MAD); 2–4 g powdered herb (PNC); 1.5–4 ml fluid herb extract (1:2)/day (MAB); 1 dropper concentrated herb extract or tincture (APA); 1 wineglass gin/herb tincture 3–4 ×/day as diuretic (CEB); 5–15 g herb tincture/day (APA); 3.5–11 ml herb tincture (1:5)/day (MAB); 0.05–0.15 g herb oil (MAD); 0.15–0.6 ml (~ 3–12 drops) herb EO (MAB); 0.05–0.2 ml EO (PNC); 1–2 enteric -coated peppermint oil pills 3 ×/day; 6–12 drops peppermint oil (SHT); 10% peppermint oil in ethanol (transdermal) (SHT); 0.3–2 ml peppermint spirit (PNC); 0.25–1 ml concentrated peppermint water (PNC); 0.2 ml 3 ×/day for irritable colon (SHT); 1–2 capsules for IBS StX (0.2 ml EO) 2–3 ×/day (SKY).
mentha pulegium
Class 2b. Emmenagogue and uterotonic (AHP). In Canada, allowed in food or beverage only if pulegone-free (AHP). CAN cautions that pulegone in the volatile oil can be irritant, hepatotoxic, and nephrotoxic. Symptoms following EO ingestion include abdominal pain, agitation, diarrhea, high blood pressure, lethargy, nausea, pyrexia, and generalized urticaria. Abortifacient doses are hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic. Because of pulegone’s abortifacient activity, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. “Both the internal and external use of pennyroyal oil has been contraindicated” (CAN).
Should not be taken (APA); 1–4 g herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2 tsp (2 g) herb in hot tea (HHB; MAD); 1–4 ml liquid herbal extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5–5 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC); 0.6–1.2 ml spirit of pulegium (PNC); 0.05–2 ml EO (I’d hesitate to suggest 0.2 ml, much less 2 ml; I think this is a frequent error in PNC) (PNC).
mentha spicata
Class 1 (AHP). None reported at proper dosing (PH2). Estimated lethal dose for menthol in humans may be as low as 2 g. Survival after doses of 8–9 g have been reported. Menthol reactions include reported cases of urticaria, allergic cheilitis, stomatosis, and rarely, shaking chills from use of topical menthol products. GI complaints due to use of peppermint preparations include stomatosis, severe esophagitis, gastrosis, unexplained
1–2 tbsp herb (0.7–1.5 g)/cup water several ×/day(APA); 0.3–1 ml concentrated spearmint water (PNC); 1 wineglass gin tincture 3–4 ×/day as diuretic (CEB); 0.5–2 ml EO (PNC).
mentha x piperita
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Peppermint) — Class 1 (AHP).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Not to be used in patients with achlorhydria, biliary or gallbladder obstruction, or gallstones. Concentrated oil may induce dermatosis, flushing and headache, if rubbed on profusely or inhaled. Leaf contains much astringent tannin that can damage the liver and intestine with prolonged use (PED). Commission E reports contraindications for EO: biliary obstruction or inflammation, and severe liver damage. Since the more widely used tea (Camellia sinensis) often contains twice as much tannin as peppermint, this recommendation should be doubly pertinent under tea, or maybe we should name these tannins the more glamorous “OPCs, polyphenols, and pycnogenols” and declare them antioxidant good guys instead of hepatotoxic bad guys (JAD). Rats receiving 100 mg/day peppermint oil develop dose-related brain lesions. Because of its ability to relax GI smooth muscles, peppermint oil may sometimes worsen symptoms of hiatal hernia. Coated pills opening too soon (in stomach) may cause gastralgia and heartburn. Excessive ingestion of the oil is associated with acute renal failure and interstitial nephrosis. Menthol reactions include reported cases of urticaria, allergic cheilitis, stomatosis, and rarely, shaking chills from use of topical menthol products. GI complaints due to use of peppermint preparations include stomatosis, severe esophagitis, gastrosis, unexplained diarrhea, and pancreatitis. Menthol in nasal preparations may cause spasm of the glottis in young children (AEH). Should not be inhaled by small children (AEH). Menthol-containing ointments applied to an infant’s nostrils have produced immediate collapse. “Peppermint tea should not be given to infants or very young children because the pungent fragrance can cause gagging” (Castleman, 1996).
Estimated LD for menthol in humans may be as low as 2 g. Survival after doses of 8 to 9 g have been reported. I fear APA erred in saying that it took 1 g/kg body weight menthol to be lethal in humans (APA). Estimated LD50 for peppermint oil in humans = 2000–9000 mg (2–9 g).
mercurialis annua
Not covered (AHP). Slightly poisonous; poisonings, including fatal ones, are known only among animals (PHR). Can lead to diarrhea and overactive bladder. Overdoses may lead to toxicity with diarrhea, hepatosis, nephrosis, neurosis, and paralysis (PH2). Pyridone derivatives may color the urine red (PH2).
No recent dosage found. I’d not advise the dosage repeated in Madaus (30–100 g sap/day). I usually caution against white sap.
michelia champaca
silymarin, silybinin, silydianin, silychristin
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Milk Thistle) — Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). None known (WAM). Commission E reports no contraindications or drug interactions for the fruit. Occasional mild laxative effects are reported (AEH). One observational study (n = >2000) reported ca. 1% side effects, mostly transient GI distress (SHT). One Australian report, attributed to something other than silybin in the milk thistle product, suggested abdominal cramping, diaphoresis, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and weakness (PH2). Antagonizes phentolamine and yohimbine (PH2). “The long term safety and the advisability of the use of these extracts in pregnant or women of potential childbearing remain to be established” (LRNP, March 1988). “May be used by ... pregnant and lactating women” (SKY).
2–3 tsp fresh leaf (sic) (PED); 1–3 g dry leaf (sic) (PED); 1 g seed (HHB); 3.5–15 g seed/day (HH3); 4–9 g seed/day (MAB); 1 tsp (3–5 g) mashed seed/cup water 3–4 ×/day, one-half hour before meals (APA; HH3); 12–15 g whole or powdered seed, an equivalent to 200–400 mg silymarin, the collective name for silybinin, silydianin, and silychristin (KOM; SHT); 4–9 ml fluid extract (1:1)/day (KOM); 1–2 (540 mg) capsules (StX with 175 mg certified potency seed extract with at least 80% silymarin, synergistically combined in a base of turmeric and artichoke) 3 ×/day with water (NH); 175 mg 80% silymarin StX (PED); 420 mg silymarin/day (PNC); 200–400 mg silymarin (SHT); 200–600 mg silymarin/day for Syndrome X (SYN).
mimosa hostilis
mimosa pudica
mirabilis jalapa
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2).
8–10 g root as purge (JFM).
mirabilis multiflora
mitchella repens
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PHR).
2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC).
mitragyna speciosa
momordica charantia
three groups of hypoglycemic compounds, alpha- and beta-momocharin, charantin, diosgenin, beta-sitosterol, alpha-trichosanthine, beta-momorchin
No toxic cases documented (PH2). Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). High doses may cause diarrhea and enteralgia (SKY); may potentiate hypoglycemic drugs (SKY); small children and patients with hypoglycemia should avoid (SKY). Seeds contain abortifacient compounds. This one is too new, at least in the First World, to have entered any of the Commission E books I am consulting for my herbal desk reference. Even TRAMIL, the Caribbean Commission E I call Commission T, does not recommend this frequent edible weed due to some toxic compounds it contains.
1 (500 mg) capsule 3 ×/day with 150 mg extract containing 2.5% bitter principles (NH); one small melon per day (SKY); 50 ml fresh juice/day (SKY); 5 ml tincture 2–3 ×/day (SKY); 2–5 g leaf/liter water (MPG).
monarda didyma
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Bee Balm) — None reported (PHR). Class 2b; emmenagogue/uterotonic (AHP). AHP assigns this caveat indiscriminately to M. clinipodia, M. didyma, M. fistulosa, M. pectinata, and M. punctata. The PHR notes antipyretic, antispasmodic, carminative, digestive, and diuretic effects, and use for dyspepsia, dysmenorrhea, and flatulence (PHR).
2–6 g in tea (JAD).
monarda fistulosa
monarda punctata
“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Not to be used during pregnancy (PH2).
EO for external use only and then diluted with something like olive oil, otherwise vesicant (PH2).
morella cerifera
morinda citrifolia
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). I could do it the lazy way and just say, “None reported.” And since it is a food species, I could live with this. TRAMIL notes that fruits and leaves are edible. Tests for uterotonicity were negative. Leaf EO (of Morinda lucida) kills aflatoxin fungi at 1000 ppm.
2–4 tbsp (COM = Commercial); PH2 says the fruits are inedible; ripe fruits, which smell of Roquefort cheese, are said to be a great favorite with Burmese (DEP); I side with the latter, the stinking fruits are widely considered edible among rural peoples.
moringa oleifera
morus alba
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PHR). FAY reports side effects only from injected leaf preparations, but no problems with oral
6–12 g root bark (FAY); 3–12 g leaf (FAY); 30–60 g branches (FAY); 9–15 g fruit (FAY); 2–4 ml fruit syrup (PHR).
morus nigra
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Black Mulberry) — Not covered (AHP). Morus alba Class 1. Not covered (KOM). None known (PHR). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
1.7–3.5 g fruit syrup (MAD); 2–4 ml fruit syrup (PHR; PH2).
morus rubra
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PHR).
2–4 ml fruit syrup (PHR).
Unknown ID
Class 2b. Emmenagogue and uterotonic (AHP). None known (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). CAN cautions that the volatile oil may cause phototoxic dermatitis. Leaves may cause contact dermatitis. Because it is reputed to affect the menstrual cycle, and of reputed uterine activity in vitro, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN; PH2). May interfere with cardiac therapy (CAN). One reference notes that doses exceeding 3 g may cause diarrhea, dyspepsia, and uterine bleeding (AHP). Inhibits pulsations of myocardial cells in vitro (PNC).
1.5–6 g/day (HHB); 4.5 g (KOM; PHR); 2–4 g/day (MAD); 2 tsp (~1 g) in cold infusion (MAD); 2–4 g in tea 3 ×/day (PH2); 2–4 g herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 tsp dry herb/cup water 1–2 ×/day (APA); 2–4 g powdered herb (PNC); 2–4 mg liquid herb extract (PNC); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–6 ml herb tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 10–15 drops tincture up to 3 ×/day (APA); 2–6 ml tincture/day (PH2); 2–4 ml liquid extract (APA); 2–4 ml liquid extract 3 ×/day (PH2).
mucuna pruriens
L-dopa
Not covered (AHP). Beware of stinging hairs. The potent antiparkinsonian effect is not entirely due to L-dopa. A seed
0.5 drachm–40 grains for leukorrhea or spermatorrhea (DEP); 0.6–4 g honey or syrup with stinging hairs for worms, for 2–3 days in the a.m. (HHB); 1.5–2.5 g powdered seed (KAP); 0.625–1.25 g stinging hairs (KAP).
Unknown ID
Class 2b. Emmenagogue and uterotonic (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). May cause abortions or allergies (BIS). Commission E reports an abortive effect and allergic reactions have been described (AEH). Oil allergenic, may cause dermatosis (FAD; PHR). Therapeutic administration is not recommended (PH2). EO is bactericidal and fungicidal. Moxibustion lowers incidence of breech birth presentation (JAMA, Nov. 11, 1998).
0.5–2 g in infusion 2–3 ×/day (PH2); 1 tsp (1.2 g) herb/cup 2–3 ×/day before meals (APA; BIS); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 0.5–5 ml liquid root extract (APA).
murraya koenigii
musa x paradisiaca
Sitoindosides I–IV, Sugars, serotonin, tyramine, dopamine, noradrenaline
Not covered (AHP; KOM).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Amines may trigger migraine. High incidence of myocardial fibrosis in tropics may result from chronic ingestion (PH2). Stem juice, but not fruits, reportedly ecbolic and emmenagogue (UPW).
100–200 g leaf/1000 ml water for topical inflammation (TRA).
Unknown ID
glucosinolate, isothiocyanate, indole-3-carbinol
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Mustard) — Class 2d (AHP (XO)). Ingestion of large quantities can cause irritant poisoning. Commission E reports seed permitted for external use only. Contraindications: children younger than 6 years, and renal disease (mustard oil is absorbed through the skin). Even external poultice should be limited to 5–10 minutes pediatrically, 10–15 minutes for adults, less for sensitive patients. (KOM). Plaster for 15–30 minutes can cause severe burns (AHP). Contraindicated in GI ulcers and nephrosis (PHR). Adverse effects: skin and nervous damage (prolonged use). Should not be used for more than 2 weeks (AEH). Millspaugh has said “unground seeds ... proved dangerous, as they are liable to become impacted in the bowel and set up a fatal inflammation” (CEB). Overdoses internally cause GI distress (PHR). Avoid taking with ammonia-containing products as ammonia with mustard oil yields inactive thiosinamine (PH2). Don’t overdo it. In huge quantities, glucosinolate/isothiocyanate-containing crucifers might upset the thyroid. Hyperthyroidism with goiter traced to the use of the isothiocyanates in mustard (APA). Delaneyite nitpickologists will doubtless clamber to put the same goitrogenic warning on all members of the mustard family as well as papaya, caper, and nasturtium (JAD). In large doses, hard to get dietarily, indole-3-carbinol might stimulate breast cancer rather than prevent it because it does so at levels reasonably attainable through dietary consumption of crucifers (Brassicaceae).
4 tbsp flour in water for compress or poultice (KOM); 20–30 g powdered seed (flour)/liter water for foot bath; 150 g flour in a pouch with bath water for mustard bath (PHR).
myosotis arvensis
pyrrolizidine alkaloids
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Should not be taken because it contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PH2).
0.5 tsp herb 5 ×/day in tea (MAD).
myrciaria dubia
myrica gale
Methylated dihydrochalcones, Myrigalone-B, tannins
Not covered (AHP). EO is toxic (PNC). “The mixing of the plant with beer, as practiced in the Middle Ages, is said to have led to manic episodes” (PHR).
myristica fragrans
myroxylon balsamum
None reported (KOM; PIP). Allergic reactions not reported but possible (PHR).
0.6 g balsam (KOM; PIP); 0.5 g balsam (PHR); 2–8 ml Tolu Syrup (PNC); 2–4 ml Tolu Tincture (PNC).
myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae
myrrhis odorata
None known with proper administration (not given) (PHR).
None given (PHR).
myrtus communis
cineole, antibacterial phenols, thermo-labile principle, monoquiterpenes, sesquiterpenes
Not covered (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Large doses may cause diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. More than 10 g myrtle oil can threaten life due to high cineole content (myrtle contains 135–2250 ppm cineole according to my calculations, meaning 10 g myrtle would contain a maximum 22.5 mg cineole). Symptoms of this alleged cineole intoxication may include circulatory disorders, collapse, lowered blood pressure, and respiratory failure. Do not apply oil to face of children as it may trigger asthma-like attacks, bronchial spasm, glottal spasms, even respiratory failure (PH2).
15–40 grains powdered myrtle for catarrh, nephrosis, and phthisis (FEL); 1–2 drops several ×/day (MAD); 15–30 g leaf/liter water for tea, but take only 0.2 g leaf per day (PH2).
n/a
8–10 g fatally toxic (antidote atropine 2 mg scu) (CRC; HHB; PHR).
n/a
nandina domestica
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Respiratory paralysis reported for children overdosing on fruits (FAY).
6–15 g fruit (FAY); 9–15 g leaf (FAY); 30–60 g rootbark (FAY).
narcissus pseudonarcissus
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Potentially allergenic. Intoxication (confused with onion bulbs) can cause CNS disorders, diarrhea, GI irritation, salivation, and vomiting (FEL; PH2).
1/4 to 10 drops tincture (bulb macerated in 98% ethanol) (FEL); 10–60 grains powdered flower or bulb (FEL).
narcissus tazetta
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2).
nardostachys grandiflora
nardostachys jatamansi
jatamansone
Class 2b. Emmenagogue and uterine stimulant (AHP). Contraindicated during pregnancy (PH2).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1–1.5 g powdered herb (KAP); 0.6–1.3 drug as single dose (PH2); 5 g root 3 ×/day (PH2); 10–20 grains powdered root (DEP; HH2); 14–56 ml fluid extract (KAP); 28–56 ml infusion (KAP); 28–56 ml decoction (KAP); wineglass full 3 ×/day (1:10 tincture or 1:40 infusion with 2 g maximum per single dose) (PH2).
nasturtium officinale
Food farmacy, eat some almost every day but don’t overdo it. 4–6 g dry herb/day (KOM); 2 g fresh herb/cup tea (APA); 20–30 g fresh herb/day (APA; KOM); 20–30 g fresh herb up to 3 ×/day (HH2); 60–150 g freshly pressed plant juice (APA; KOM); 4 tbsp fresh plant juice with cold Guazuma bark tea (like slippery elm bark) with 4 tbsp red wine 2–3 ×/day (JFM); 2–3 cups preprandial herb tea, 2 g (1–2 tsp) steeped 10–15 minutes in 150 ml boiled water (PH2).
nasturtium officinale r. brown
nelumbo nucifera
nepeta cataria
nereocystis luetkeana
Class 2d. Not recommended in hyperthyroidism. Long-term use discouraged (AHP).
4–6 (400-mg) tablets (APA); 2–3 tsp powdered alga to 3 ×/day (APA).
nerium oleander
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Commission E reports accidental and therapeutic use of leaf has resulted in partially fatal poisonings (AEH). Overdoses may cause arrhythmia, bradycardia, cardiodepression, confusion, cyanosis, diarrhea, headache, hyperkalemia, nausea, neurodepression, stupor, and vomiting (BRU; DEP; MAD; PH2). More than 100 years ago we read, “Several cases are on record of fatal results from the internal administration” (DEP). 142 bovines died in California over 6 years, 1989–1995 (BRU). During the Persian campaign, Alexander’s army lost horses that had fed on the shrub, and some soldiers died who had grilled their meat on skewers made from the wood (WBB). 15–20 g fresh leaf can kill a horse, 10–20 a cow, 1–5 a sheep. Children have died after ingesting a handful of flowers (JFM).
Equivalent to 1–3 grains fresh bark or dried fruit (FEL); 50 mg leaf (MAD).
nerium oleander l.
neurolaena lobata
nicotiana tabacum
nicotiana tabacum l.
nigella sativa
Nigellone
Nigellone protects guinea pigs from histamine-induced bronchospasms (WOI). LD50 alcoholic extract 540–580 mg/kg ipr mouse (MPI).
0.6–1.2 g seed (HHB; MAD); 1 tsp seed in hot tea (MAD).
nuphar variegata
nymphaea odorata
Not covered (AHP). None reported at proper dosages (PHR). High doses have led to animal fatalities (PHR). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1–2 g in herb tea/day (HH2; PH2); 1–4 ml liquid herb extract (HH2; PHR).
Class 1 (AHP). None known (KOM; concerning straw only). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Like most cereals (rice excluded), oats might be avoided by celiacs (gluten sensitivity) (SKY). Recent new data suggest that oats maybe are okay for celiacs.
3 g oat bran soluble fiber/day (APA); 100 g oat bran/day for 3 weeks (sic) (SHT); 1 tbsp oats/cup water several ×/day (SKY); 3 g grass/0.25 liter, several ×/day or before retiring (BIS); 3 g herb/250 ml water (PH2); 100 g herb in bath (KOM; PH2); 1–2 tbsp fresh herb (PED); 2–3 g dry herb (PED); 2.5 g dry herb/cup boiling water (PED); 6–2 ml liquid seed extract (PNC); 0.5–1 dropper tincture or concentrated extract 2–3 ×/day (APA); 3–5 ml oat tincture 3 ×/day (SKY).
ocimum basilicum
oleanolic acid, eugenol
Class 2b, 2c, 2d. Not recommended for infants or over a long period (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) But one should forgo use of basil oil, however, until “the final determinations of the drug’s carcinogenic potential” (PH2). Commission E reports the herb contains up to 0.5% of EO, which contains up to 85% of estragole. Estragole is mutagenic following metabolic activation, and there is evidence from animal experiments that it may be carcinogenic. The herb and EO should not be used during pregnancy and lactation or for prolonged periods. There is no objection to the use of the herb as an admixture in levels up to 5% (AEH).
1–2 tsp herb/cup water 2–3 ×/day; 0.5–1 tsp tincture up to 3 ×/day (APA); 5 g leaf/200 cc water for gas (JFM); 20 g leaf/300 cc water for aphtha (JFM); 15 g fresh plant/l water, one cup before retiring (TRA).
ocimum tenuiflorum
Eugenol
Class 2b, 2c, 2d. Not recommended for infants or over a long period. AHP evaluating Ocimum basilicum (1997). As the source of eugenol, perhaps second only to some varieties of clove (up to 20% eugenol), and cinnamon (to 3.8%), and allspice (to 3.6% eugenol), basil and holy basil are spices source of eugenol, which has all sorts of biological activities.
2 g dried powder herb decoction 2–3 ×/day (AKT); 500–1000 mg (4:1) concentrated herb powder extract 2–3 ×/day (AKT). 1–2 tsp herb/cup water 2–3 ×/day; 0.5–1 tsp herb tincture up to 3 ×/day (APA, based on Ocimum basilicum).
oenanthe aquatica
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Water Fennel) — Not covered (AHP). None with proper dosage (PHR; PH2).
4–5 grains seeds every hour or two to a cautious 8–10 grains (FEL); 4–5 g powdered fruit (HH2); tincture 1:5 seed/70% ethanol (PH2).
oenanthe crocata
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Responsible for many poisonings (PNC). Early symptoms include burning sensations, chills, debility, dizziness, dysphonia, twitching, colonic spasms, unconsciousness, and death (PH2). As little as five drops in a tincture can cause serious headache (FEL). 650 g root can kill a cow and horse, 2 g a guinea pig (HH2).
Don’t take it (JAD).
oenothera biennis
gamma-linolenic acid, GLA, tryptophan, cis-linoleic acid, linoleic acid, gamolenic acid
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Evening Primrose) — Class 1 (AHP). The literature looks reasonably clean. I’ve heard from two separate personal cases of women taking it satisfactorily for PMS, that it caused migraine-like headaches which they did not experience before taking EPO. Anecdotal but credible. As one source of tryptophan, which may convert to cerebral serotonin, it can alter brain levels of serotonin, which is involved in some migraine cases. Colic, headache, and nausea may occur in a small percentage of subjects. CAN reports patients with schizophrenia on phenothiazines may experience mild dyspepsia and/or increased risk of epilepsy. They rather give it a green light for breastfeeding mothers, since both linoleic acid and gamma-linolenic acid are normally in breast milk (CAN). The conservative Miller and Murray (1998) book says, “No adverse effects of EPO have been reported. Chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity studies of EPO in rats, mice, and dogs revealed no important adverse effects or tumor differences” (MAM). The second edition of the Herbal PDR warns that EPO may possibly lower the seizure threshold in patients being treated with drugs that lower the seizure threshold in schizophrenia.
250 mg GLA/day (APA); 250 mg oil up to 3 ×/day (APA); 250 mg oil/day/and up (PNC); 270–720 mg EPO equivalent to 1–2 g GLA (obviously an error here) (APA); 6–8 g EPO/day, 1/2 as much for pediatric dose (PH2); 2–4 g (child) or 4–8 g EPO/day for atopic eczema; 3–4 g for mastalgia (CAN); 3–12 (500 mg) capsules EPO/day; 1 (1300 mg) capsule (StX with 1300 mg EPO with at least 130 mg GLA and 962 mg cis-linoleic acid) 2 ×/day (NH).
olea europaea
Not covered (AHP). None known at proper dosage (PHR). LD50 = 1300 mg/lg ipr mouse; >3000 mg/kg orl mouse. | Class 1 (JAD). Not covered (AHP). Commission E reports the oil should not be used in patients with gallstones or bile stones because of the risk that a biliary colic is induced. Topical application rarely results in allergic skin reactions (AEH).
7–8 g dry leaf in 150 ml water, 3–4 ×/day (that totals up to an oz of leaf) (APA); wineglass-full strong leaf decoction every 3 hours for malaria (FEL); 2 tsp leaf in hot water, steep 30 min (PHR). | 1–2 oz olive oil as a laxative (APA); 1 tbsp olive oil in the morning to protect the GI tract linings (APA); 1 oz as purge (FEL); 15–60 ml olive oil (PNC).
ononis spinosa
onopordum acanthium
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Scotch Thistle) — Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1 tsp herb 3 ×/day (MAD).
ophioglossum vulgatum
ophioglossum vulgatum l.
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (English Adder’s Tongue) — Not covered (AHP; KOM). I don’t see why PH2 included it; two chemicals, no folk indications (PH2).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
Topical application of a mix: 2 lb leaf chopped fine in 1/2 pint oil and 1.5 lb suet melted together; strain after boiling until the leaf fragments are crisp (GMH).
opuntia ficus-indica
orchis spp.
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1 g/cup tea (HHB);1 tsp powdered root/glass warm water, before meals (PH2).
origanum majorana
origanum majorana l.
Class 1 (AHP). The Herbal PDR suggests use of the herb, but not the salve, is okay for infants.
0.5–1 tsp tincture up to 3 ×/day (APA); 1–2 tsp shoot/cup water 2–3 ×/day (APA; PHR).
origanum vulgare l.
ornithogalum umbellatum
Poison (f; CRC).
orthosiphon aristatus
potassium salts, saponins, flavonoids, caffeic-acid derivatives, phenolics
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). None reported for oral dosing. Irrigation therapy contraindicated for edema due to reduced cardiac or renal function (KOM; PH2; PIP).
2.5 g/cup leaf tea (HHB); 6–12 g/day leaf in tea with at least 2 liters water (BIS; KOM; PH2; SHT); 2 tsp (3.6 g) leaf in cold infusion (MAD).
oryza sativa
oxalis acetosella
Evaporate the sorrel juice in sun, adding juice of red clover leaves and flowers, thickening with white oak ashes, applying topically to cancers, especially breast cancer (CEB). Others suggest sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella), which is in the Essiac formula.
parthenolide, artecanin, canin, 3-beta-hydroxyparthenolide, secotanoparthenolide
Not covered (AHP). Leaves eaten as pot herb or salad (WO2). Large doses emetic (WO2). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Highly dermatitigenic (PH2). Warning: May cause contact dermatosis or cross–allergic reactions with other members of the daisy family (FAD).
1 cup 3 ×/day (PH2).
paeonia lactiflora
paeoniflorin
Class 1 (P. lactiflora and P. officinalis) (AHP). No peonies were approved by Commission E but they did say, “No risks known” (KOM). The Physicians Desk Reference was a bit more explicit regarding P. officinalis, “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). “Side effects that may occur, particularly in cases of over dosages, include gastroenterosis with vomiting, colic, and diarrhea” (PHR).
1 tsp flower/cup water (WIC); 20 g root/750 ml water sipped through the day (APA); Chinese report 3–12 g peony root (FAY); 2–6 g dry root/day or 4–12 ml fluid extract (1:2) (KEB); 6–15 g standardized for paeoniflorin (WHO).
paeonia officinalis
paeoniflorin
Class 1. “Canadian regulations do not allow European peony as a nonmedicinal ingredient for oral use products” (AHP). No peonies were approved by Commission E, but they did say, “No risks known” (KOM). The Physicians Desk Reference was a bit more explicit regarding P. officinalis, “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). “Side effects that may occur, particularly in cases of over dosages, include gastroenterosis with vomiting, colic, and diarrhea” (PHR). “Because efficacy has not been documented, therapeutic use cannot be recommended” (PH2).
1 tsp (~1 g) flower/cup water (APA; PH2; WIC); 30–40 grains seed for nightmare (FEL); 2 g seed (HHB); 3–12 g peony root (FAY); 1 oz root boiled in a pint of liquid (1 part “good gin”:2 parts water) (FEL); 1–30 drops root tincture (FEL); 0.3–0.6 g powder root for children (MAD); 5–15 drops tincture (MAD); 2–3 fluid oz 3–4 ×/day (FEL).
paeonia officinalis l.
paeonia suffruticosa
paeonol
Class 1 (lactiflora and officinalis) or 2b (suffruticosa) (AHP). No peonies were approved by Commission E but they did say, “No risks known” (KOM). The Physicians’ Desk Reference was a bit more explicit, “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) “Side effects that may occur, particularly in cases of over dosages, include gastroenterosis with vomiting, colic, and diarrhea” (PHR). Much of the indicated uses and biological activity is attributed to paeonol. Aqueous and hydroalcoholic uses in dental, hair, and skin-care products, for their antiinflammatory, antibacterial, and skin-protectant and soothing properties (LAF).
1 tsp flower/cup water (WIC); Chinese report 3–12 g peony root (FAY); 6 g decoction (HHB).
paeonia suffruticosa andrews
panax ginseng
ginsenosides, Ginsenosides, Ginsenoside Rb1, Ginsenoside Rg1, mixed saponins
Class 2d. Contraindicated for high blood pressure (AHP). The ginseng monograph published in 1991 says “none known” regarding contraindications, drug interactions, or side effects (KOM). Contraindicated in acute infections, asthma, and high blood pressure (KEB). High doses may aggravate or cause decreased sexual function, dysmenorrhea, euphoria, headaches, high blood pressure, insomnia, irritability, morning diarrhea, palpitations, skin eruptions, and tremors (KEB). The worst and most erroneous studies of ginseng were reported in JAMA, which accepted no corrections from the herbal industry, trying to get the reports straight. “Most commonly reported side effects of ginseng are nervousness and excitation, which usually diminish” (LRNP, September 1990). Foster (1996) reports GI distress, overstimulation, breast tenderness, dysmenorrhea. Though estrogenic side effects are reported in both premenopausal and postmenopausal women, “clinical studies have demonstrated that a standardized ginseng extract does not cause a change in male and female hormonal status” (WHO). Avoid if hypertensive or pregnant. Possible insomnia, mastalgia, vaginal bleeding, and insomnia. Contraindicated for patients with hyperkinesis, hysteria, mania, schizophrenia, or those who are nervous or tense. Not to be taken with stimulants, including coffee, antipsychotic drugs, or during treatment with hormones. Use cautiously in cardiopathy, diabetes, high blood pressure, hypotension, and with all steroid therapy. In Russia, it is even suggested that healthy people under age 40 should not take ginseng, but that middle-aged people can take small doses on a regular basis (CAN). Because of hormonal activity, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). Caution with insulin, warfarin, phenylzine, and loop
Tea 3–4 ×/day, 3–4 weeks (PH2); 0.33–0.66 g root 3 ×/day; 0.6–3.0 g root 1–3 ×/day, 3 weeks–3 months (AHP); 0.5–1 g root daily, 15–20 days (CAN); 1–2 g root/day (PH2); 1–9 g root (FAY); 1–10 g root/day (MAB); 0.4–0.8 g root/day, long term (CAN); 1–2 g Asian root/day (APA); 0.5 tsp dried Asian root/cup water 1–2 ×/day (APA); 1 tbsp fresh root (PED); 0.5–2 g dry root (WHO); 2 g dry root:10 ml alcohol/10 mg water (PED); 0.5–3 g dry root/day or 1–6 ml fluid extract (1:2) (KEB); 1–2 g dry root (KOM; PED); 0.5–1 g powdered root (PNC); 3–9 g powdered ginseng/day (AKT); 3 (550 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (Korean); 1–4 (250 mg) StX capsules (5–9% ginsenosides) (APA); 100 mg StX (4–7% ginsenosides) 1–2 ×/day; 1 (535 mg) StX 2 ×/day (Korean). | Use should be restricted to 3 months (SHT).
panax pseudoginseng wall. var. notoginseng (burkill) g. hoo & c.j. tseng
panax quinquefolius
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered exactly in PH2 where, unfortunately, they list American (P. quinquefolius) and Siberian Ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus) among the trade names for oriental ginseng (Panax ginseng), rendering the entire PH2 entry suspect.
pancratium spp.
Cardiotoxic (1; CRC); Poison (1; CRC).
None found.
rutin, salicylic acid, Rutoside, Viola-Quercitrin
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). None known (KOM; WAM). May need the salicylate warning (0.3% salicylic acid) (APA). “Contains saponins, may be toxic in large dose” (FAD). As one of my best sources of rutin (up to 20 mg rutin per edible pansy flower, needs to be verified), this may share some of the many activities of rutin. HH2 still maintains that the flowers contain 23% “Rutoside (Rutin, Viola-Quercitrin),” commenting that the highest levels occur in the white and yellow flowers, with less in blue and violet flowers.
1–2 tsp flowers/cup water (APA; WIC); 1 tbsp infusion 3 ×/day (5–10 g herb/liter hot tea) (HH2); 1.5 g/cup water up to 3 ×/day (KOM; PIP); 1 tbsp/cup tea (PH2); 5–10 g/liter (PH2); one white or yellow flower could provide 20 mg rutin.
papaver bracteatum
papaver rhoeas
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Children have been poisoned eating the flowers and leaves (PH2).
1 g flower/cup tea (PH2); 2.5–5 ml flower syrup (PNC).
papaver somniferum
Seeds Class 1 (AHP). Not indexed in Commission E. Opium overdoses can cause cold clammy skin, fast weak pulse, fluid in the lungs, cyanosis, pupil constriction, and possible death from circulatory and respiratory failure. Opium addicts can reportedly tolerate 2000 mg over 4 hours, but 300 mg will kill many naive subjects. Opiates have been detected in urine of poppy-seed eaters as much as 48 hours after ingestion. Like ginkgo, it “increases blood flow to the brain” (APA).
Prescription only (for opiates). I do not believe I’d recommend the dosage in KAP, 30–125 mg.
parietaria officinalis
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
paris quadrifolia
Not covered (AHP). Although no serious poisoning have been reported in recent times, poisonings can induce diarrhea, headache, miosis, nausea, stomachache, vertigo, and vomiting (PH3; MAD).
Almost exclusively homeopathic (HHB; PH2);
parthenium integrifolium
Class 1 (AHP).
1 tbsp fresh root (PED); 1.5 g dry root (PED); 1.5 g dry root:8 ml alcohol/7 ml water.
parthenocissus quinquefolia
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Virginia-Creeper) — Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). There has been one report of a child fatality following ingestion of the berries (which can contain up to 20,000 ppm oxalic acid) (PH2).
15–30 drops fluid shoot extract (CEB).
parthenocissus quinquefolia (l.) planch.
passiflora incarnata
passiflora quadrangularis
noradrenalin
Contains noradrenalin (DAV).
Flavonoids, Alkaloids, Harmala alkaloids, Harman, Harmaline, Apigenin, Harmine-type alkaloids, Maltol, Passicol
Class 1 (AHP). None known or reported (KOM; PIP; PH2; WAM). Large doses may result in CNS depression (LRNP, May 1989). The same precautions suggested for MAOIs might be indicated here. Excessive doses may potentiate MAOI therapy (CAN). Because of harman and harmaline (uterine stimulants), its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). One report on humans detailed hypnotic sedative effects, but there were hints of hepatotoxicity and pancreatoxicity. “Content of harman alkaloids ... must not exceed 0.01 percent” (KOM). Animal studies suggest motility inhibition (PHR). LD50 unspecified extracts = 3000–15,000 mg/kg; toxic dose ipr 500–900 mg/kg alcoholic and dry extracts (HH2). LD50 maltol 820 mg/kg scu mouse (HH2).
1–2 tbsp flower/day (PED); 1 tsp dry flower/cup water up to 3 ×/day (APA); 0.5–1 tsp flower tincture to 3 ×/day (APA); 2–4 ml flower tincture/day (SKY); 150–300 mg solid leaf extract (APA); 0.5–1 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC); 0.5–2 ml shoot tincture (1:8 in 45% ethanol) (HH2); 4–8 g dry herb (HH2; KOM; SHT); 1–3 g dry herb/day (PED); 0.25–2.5 g herb, or in tea, 2–3 ×/day (CAN; SKY); 1 tsp herb/cup tea 2–3 ×/day (PH2); 20 g herb/200 ml water for hemorrhoid wash (PH2); 0.5–1.0 ml liquid herbal extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5–2.0 ml herbal tincture (1:8 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); StX = 0.8% total flavonoids (SKY).
pastinaca sativa
Not covered (PH2). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Fair complexions may suffer photodermatosis (PH2).
Root food farmacy (JAD); 1 tsp fresh herb 3 ×/day (MAD); handful herb boiled 10 minutes in 1 liter water, drink one wine glassful to 3 ×/day, or up to 2 liters/day, for 4–6 weeks (MAD; PH2).
paullinia cupana
Guaranine, Caffeine
Class 2d. CNS-stimulant. Not recommended for excess or prolonged use (AHP seems to say this about most caffeine-containing plants) (AHP). Lininger et al. (1998) don’t say this about all the caffeine containing herbs as they do about guarana, “Caffeine may have adverse effects on the blood vessels and other body systems as well as on a developing fetus and presumably guaranine would have similar effects. As with any caffeinated product, guarana may cause insomnia, trembling, anxiety, palpitations, urinary frequency, and hyperactivity” (SKY). Should be avoided during pregnancy and lactation.
500–1000 mg dried herb (APA); 1 g powdered guarana (HH2; PH2); 0.5–4 g powdered guarana (APA; PNC); 1–2 g crushed seed or resin per cup water 3 ×/day providing up to 50 mg guaranine each cup (SKY).
paullinia yoko r. e. schult. & killip
pausinystalia johimbe
pausinystalia johimbe (k. schum.) pierre ex beille
yohimbine
Class 2d. CNS-stimulant. Not for prolonged use. Contraindicated in hepatosis, nephrosis, prostatosis, or chronic inflammation of the sex organs. May potentiate MAOIs and hypotensive drugs. High doses can lower blood pressure dangerously, with unpleasant digestive and CNS reactions (AHP). Commission E reports the bark contains the toxic alkaloid yohimbine (AEH). Standard doses (15–30 mg/day) may cause anxiety, dizziness, insomnia, and nausea; 40 mg can be dangerous: chills, hallucinations, muscular dysfunction, and vertigo (SKY). Do not mix with other antidepressants except under advice of a practitioner (SKY). “Therapeutic administration of yohimbine can cause nervous excitation, tremor, sleeplessness, anxiety, flushing, hallucinations, headache, increased blood pressure, and tachycardia, as well as nausea and vomiting. In case of existing liver and kidney disease, yohimbe preparations should not be used” (KOM). The normal dose of 5 mg yohimbine can create problems in patients with bipolar disorders; 10 mg can induce manic symptoms. Side effects and dosage peculiarities make it difficult to handle.
Do not take it except under a doctor’s advice (APA); 0.5 g individual, up to 3–10 g bark/day (HHB); 1 oz bark/2 cups water, average dose = 500 mg bark (JAD); 2–4 ml liquid bark extract (PNC); 5–10 drops bark tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 5–6 mg yohimbine 3–4 ×/day (AHP); 5 mg yohimbine 3 ×/day (MAD); 15–30 mg yohimbine/day (SKY); 10 mg 3 ×/daily/8 weeks for erectile dysfunction (PH2); 6 mg 3 ×/day for xerostomia (PH2); 1–2 (400 mg) StX capsules with 8 mg yohimbine (NH).
peganum harmala
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Large doses may cause abortion, depression, emesis, and hallucination (DEP). Toxic drug (HHB).
30 grains to 2 drachms herb for analgesic (DEP); 15–30 ml herb 1:20 infusion, 2–4 ml herb 1:10 tincture (HHB).
perilla frutescens
furan, perillaldehyde, perilla ketone, stigmasterol, dihydroxyphenylethenyl esters of caffeic acid
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Isolated furan can cause lung lesions in animals, grazing cattle may develop emphysema (FAY). Perillaldehyde may be mutagenic, perilla ketone may be edemagenic. Methanol extracts are sedative perhaps due to the combined effect of perillaldehyde and stigmasterol (HH3). The ethanolic leaf extract with the dihydroxyphenylethenyl esters of caffeic acid at IC50’s 0.021–0.124 µg/ml, cf. allopurinol at 0.021.
3–10 g seed (FAY); 4.5–9 g seed (FAY); 3–9 g leaf (FAY); 3–10 g aqueous extract (HH3; PH2).
persea americana
dopamine, methyl chavicol
Not covered (AHP; APA; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Leaves contain dopamine and the leaf oil contains methyl chavicol. Ingestion of leaves, bark, or both has caused mastitis in cattle, horses, rabbits, and goats, and large doses have been fatal to goats. Ingestion of the leaves has proved fatal to rabbits. Avocado leaves in a pool have killed fish. Unripe avocados said to be toxic; canaries have died after ingesting ripe fruit. Two resins derived from the skin of the fruit are toxic to guinea pigs by subcutaneous and peritoneal injection. Ground seeds mixed with cornmeal or cheese have been used to poison rodents (DAD). LD50 water extracts of leaves = >8828 mg/kg ipr rat (TRA); LD50 water extracts of fruits = >12,500 mg/kg orl rat (TRA); LD50 water extracts of leaves = >12,500 mg/kg orl rat (TRA).
Fruit pulp (and only fruit) food farmacy (JAD). For emmenagogue activity; take 120–240 ml every 6–8 hours of the aqueous decoction (20 g fruit/liter) (TRA). For empacho (intestinal obstruction), grind 1 seed; boil in 2 cups water; drink 1 cup hot 2 ×/day (AAB).
petasites hybridus (l.) p. gaertn. et al. and p. officinalis moench
pyrrolizidine alkaloids, sesquiterpene lactones
Contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs). Not recommended due to PAs and sesquiterpene lactones (PNC). Daily dose should not exceed 1 µg PAs; do not dose more than 4–6 weeks a year (SHT). Botanically similar to Tussilago farfara. Adequate data about PA content not available. PAs are toxic to humans, with liver damage with cirrhosis and ascites, or seneciosis, or veno-occlusive disease (VOD) reported in almost all cases of severe or fatal intoxications, from intakes of 0.5–3.3 mg/kg (AEH). Commission E reports all plant parts contain hepatotoxic, genotoxic, and carcinogenic PAs. Contraindicated in pregnancy and lactation (AEH). Gruenwald (PHR) makes the following contradictory statements, back-to-back, first his template, “No health hazards or side effects are known in conjunction with the proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages.” Then, the conflicting statement, “One should entirely forgo any administration of the drug, due to the presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids with hepatotoxic and carcinogenic effects in the parts of the plant above ground, as even mere traces of the alkaloids present a danger” (PHR).
4.5–7 g/day dry herb (KOM; PH2; SHT); 1.2–2 g powdered herb/cup water, 2–3 ×/day (HH2; PH2). “Teas should not be used” (PH2).
petiveria alliacea
Diabetic and pregnant patients should not use it (TRA). LD50 360 mg/kg rat (TRA).
petroselinum crispum
apiole, myristicin
Class 2b. Contraindicated in nephrosis (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E approves the herb and root, not the seed (fruit) (KOM). CAN cautions that the apiole in the volatile oil and excessive ingestion can be abortifacient, irritant, phototoxic, and cause hepatosis. In pregnancy and lactation, parsley should not be ingested excessively (CAN). Myristicin can cause deafness, decrease in pulse rate, giddiness, hypotension, and paralysis, followed by fatty degeneration of the kidney and liver. Myristicin may cross the placenta, leading to fetal tachycardia. Ingestion of 10 g apiole (200 g parsley) may cause acute hemolytic anemia, hepatic dysfunction, nephrosis, and thrombocytopenia pupura (CAN). Parsley may potentiate MAOI activity (CAN). Because of its toxicity, EO should not be used in isolation (KOM). Commission E is rather tough on parsley seed oil, but the indictment, overblown or not, might conceivably be extended to other herbs containing apiole and myristicin. Of apiole, “Large doses of parsley-seed EO and of ... apiol bring about vascular congestion and increased contractility of the smooth muscle of the bladder, intestines, and especially the uterus. Parsley seed and oil are therefore often used to bring about abortion.” (BIS) The renal epithelium can be damaged or irritated and cardiac arrhythmias can occur after using parsley seed preparations (BIS). “Large doses of apiol can lead to fatty liver, emaciation, extensive mucosal bleeding, and inflammatory haemorrhagic infiltration of the gastrointestinal tract, haemoglobinuria, methaeglobinuria, and anuria. Therapeutic use cannot be endorsed” (Commission E, as interpreted by Bisset, 1994). Commission E reports contraindications: pregnancy and nephrosis; adverse effects: allergic reactions of skin/mucosae (rarely) and phototoxicity. The pure oil is toxic and should not be used. Fruit not permitted for therapeutic use. The EO and its constituent apiole are toxic (AEH). When parsley is decocted it is emmenagogue and abortive. A young woman, in 1992, reportedly died while trying to abort. “Even the common parsley mentioned earlier can cause serious injuries; oedema of the legs, vomiting, haematuria, liver and renal damage have all been observed. However, poisoning by this plant is never accidental, but always voluntary, so the plant can be used safely in preparing food” (FIT67(6):513. 1996).
100–150 g fresh juice (MAD); 6 g leaf (HH2; KOM; SHT); 1–2 tsp dry leaf/cup water (APA); 1–2 tsp dry root/cup water (APA); 2–4 g root, or in tea (CAN); 2 g root in tea 2–3 ×/day (HH2); 2.5–5 ml liquid root extract (PNC); 1–2 g seed (CAN); 500–1500 mg seed (MAD); 1 tsp (~1.4 g) bruised seed/cup water (APA); 2.5–5 ml liquid seed extract (PNC); 2–4 g herb, or in tea (CAN); 6 g herb (KOM); 2–4 tbsp fresh herb (PED); 3–6 g dry herb (PED); 4.5 g dry herb:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 6 g herb or root/day (PH2); 2–4 ml herb or root liquid extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 3–4 drops parley oil as diuretic, or 2–4 fl oz infusion 3–4 ×/day (FEL). “The leaves, bruised, are a good application to contusions, swelled breasts, and enlarged glands — reputed to ‘dry up the milk’ (FEL).”
peucedanum ostruthium
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Furanocoumarins may be phototoxic (PH2; PNC).
1 tsp (ca 4.5 g) root in cold infusion (MAD); 500–2000 mg powdered root 2–3 ×/day (MAD; PH2); 4–8 ml liquid rhizome extract (PNC).
peucedanum ostruthium (l.) w. d. j. koch.
peumus boldus
boldine, ascaridole, terpinen-4-ol, alkaloids
Class 2b (JAD) 2d. Contraindicated in gallstones, serious hepatosis, and obstruction of the bile duct (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Still, PH2 cites an old source indicating that long-term consumption of boldine led to color hallucinations, depression, partial motor aphasia, and sound hallucinations (PH2). Commission E reports contraindications for leaf: biliary obstruction, severe liver diseases. EO and distillates should not be used because of their ascaridole content (AEH). CAN caution against toxicity and irritation from the volatile oil. Because of the irritant oil, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). It’s nice to be cited by Schulz, Hansel, and Tyler (1998), “Because the herb contains substances that are potentially toxic (Duke, 1985), it is not recommended for long term use and should not be taken during pregnancy” (SHT). But that could be carried as far as the Delaney Clause, since all herbs (like all pharmaceuticals) contain substances that are potentially toxic. Given internally in toxic doses, boldine causes great excitement, exaggerates reflexes and respiratory movements, increases diuresis, causes cramps and convulsions ending in death from centric respiratory paralysis, the heart beating some time after respiration fails.
1–2 tsp (2-3 g) dry leaf/cup water (APA); 3 g dry leaf/day (KOM); 4.5 g dry leaf/day (PHR; PH2); 1–2 g leaf (HHB); 60–200 mg as tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.1–0.3 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 45% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5–2 ml tincture (1:10 in 60% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–5 g tincture or elixir (HHB); 5 drops boldo oil for urogenitary problems (GMH).
phaseolus lunatus l. var. lunatus
phaseolus vulgaris
Chromium salts, genistein
Not covered by AHP. None known (KOM).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). The Herbal PDR hints that poisonings due to over consumption of too many raw beans is not impossible, due to lectins, which are destroyed by cooking. Symptoms include diarrhea, gastroenterosis, and vomiting. Of course, overconsumption of dry bean seeds can also lead to GI distress such as flatus and dyspepsia.
Drink the string bean pot likker as food farmacy, and eat the string beans (JAD); I often enjoy 100–200 g with diced raw onion; 0.5 cup seed (100 g) as food (JAD); 5–15 g herb (green pod)/day (KOM; PHR); pour hot water over 2.5 g dry powdered pods.
phellodendron amurense
berberine
Class 2b (AHP). Not covered (BGB, PH2). One case of rash associated with ingestion (AHP). Good and bad effects of berberine may accrue to this species. Contains up to 25,000 ppm berberine, P. chinese, up to 80,000.
3–10 g powdered bark/day (AKT); 1–3 g bark/day (HHB); 1–3 g 4:1 dry decoction (AKT).
phoenix dactylifera
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). A 5% date extract was shown to have a better growth inhibition on C. albicans compared to amphotericin B. The date extract caused a leakage of cytoplasmic contents from the yeast cells. (Sallal A-K J, El-Teen K H A, Abderrahman S.; 1996).
Fruit is food farmacy (JAD).
phoradendron leucarpum
Not exactly covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Mistletoes are generally considered poisonous.
phragmites australis
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
Not covered. Young sprouts eaten as a delicacy in Japan (HHB).
phyla scaberrima
100 g herb decocted for asthma (JFM); boil a handful fresh herb and 1 cup sugar in 1 quart water for hacking cough (AAB); chew flower for toothache.
phyllanthus emblica
phyllanthus niruri
Lignans, repandusinic acid A
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Phyllanthus) — Not covered (AHP; KOM; PNC). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). None reported (SKY).
900–2700 mg plant powder/day/3 months (SKY); 10 plants/liter water (PH2); 3–6 g powdered herb (KAP); 14–28 ml tea (KAP); 2–6 ml extract (1:2) (KEB).
physalis alkekengi
Not covered (AHP). Green fruits can cause poisoning (PH2).
15–60 g edible fruit in decoction (HHB); 30 g fruit juice (HHB; MAD); 10–20 berries/day (MAD); 15–30 g shoot in decoction (MAD).
physalis peruviana
physostigma venenosum
physostigmine
Not covered (AHP). Lethal dose for adult man = 6–10 drops physostigmine (ca. 2–3 beans). Symptoms of intoxication: cyanosis diarrhea, dizziness, nausea, salivation, spasms, stupor, sweating, tachycardia, twitching, vomiting, and finally death through asphyxiation (PH2). Lithium chloride may increase toxicity (HH3).
Too dangerous for internal use (JAD); 1–2 eye drops 3 ×/day (PH2).
phytolacca americana
Class 3 (AHP). CAN reports lectins to be mitogenic and toxic, and to cause cramps, nausea, and vomiting. Because of toxic
Do not use (APA); 0.2–1 g dry root/day (MAB); 60–300 mg root (MAD); 0.06–0.3 g powdered root (CAN; PNC); 0.1–0.5 ml liquid root extract (PNC); 0.1–0.5 ml liquid root extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.2–0.6 ml root tincture (CAN; PNC); saturated gin berry tincture for arthrosis (FEL); 2–4 dry berries/day for arthrosis (JAD); 0.15–0.7 ml tincture (1:5)/day (MAB); 60–100 mg (PH2).
picea abies
picea glauca
picrasma excelsa
Class 2b (AHP). Excessive amount can irritate the gastric mucosa and cause vomiting. Use during pregnancy and lactation is discouraged. Excessive doses may interfere with cardiac and coagulant therapy (CAN). Folklore has it that chronic use can lead to poor vision, even total blindness, shades of another bitter, absinth. No side effects noted in 454 patients who used quassia tincture as a scalp lotion for head lice.
1–2 g wood decoction/day (AHP); 1–4 ml concentrated BPC wood infusion (CAN); 0.25 tsp (0.5 g) powdered wood/cup water, half-hour before meals (APA); 0.3–0.6 g powdered wood (PNC); 0.3–0.6 g dry wood, or in cold tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2.5–5 ml concentrated wood tea (PNC); 2.5–5 ml wood tincture or tea (APA); 2–4 ml quassia tincture (CAN); 2.5–5 ml quassia tincture (PNC).
picrorhiza kurrooa
Picroliv, picroside I, kutkoside, kutkin, cucurbitacin-B
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Bitterness is intolerable to some. May cause skin rash. Cucurbitacins may induce diarrhea, gas, and griping (KEB). LD 10,000 mg/kg (HH3). LD50 cucurbitacin-B 10.9 mg/kg orl mouse (HH3).
3–3.5 g root as antiperiodic (KAP); 0.5–2 g dry root/day or 1–4 ml root extract (1:2)/day (KEB); 1–1.5 g powdered rhizome (KAP); 2–4 ml rhizome tincture (HH3; PH2); 0.6–1.2 g to 4 g drug/day for malaria (HH3; PH2).
pilocarpus spp
pilocarpine
Class 2b (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Not for use during pregnancy (PH2). The lethal dose of pilocarpine is ca 60 mg, corresponding to 5–10 g drug (PHR). My database suggests that it is much less toxic; LD50 pilocarpine = 911 mg/kg orl rat. Poisoning possible through eye drops being swallowed through eye or nose. May cause bradycardia, bronchial cramps, colic, convulsion, diaphoresis, dyspnea, emesis, hypotension, and salivation (PH2).
“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
pimenta dioica
eugenol
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Extracts (Allspice) — Rinzler recounts a study of 408 patients with eczema in which 19 reacted positively to allspice patch tests (RIN).
1–2 tsp herb/cup water 3 ×/day (APA); 4–6 fruits/cup water as stimulant (JFM); 0.5–2 g powdered fruit (PNC); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PNC); 0.05–0.2 ml EO (PNC).
pimenta racemosa (mill.) j. w. moore.
pimpinella anisum
Anethole
Class 2b (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). “Occasional allergic reactions of the skin, respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract” (BIS, KOM). We might extend to all apiaceous oils Bisset’s comments on celeryseed oil, “The drug is contraindicated in inflammation of the kidneys,” since apiaceous EOs may increase the inflammation as a result of epithelial irritation (BIS). Oil reported carminative and expectorant; 1–5 ml can cause nausea, pulmonary edema, seizures, and vomiting; LD50 EO =2700 mg/kg orl rat (HH2). Anethole in the volatile oil may cause contact dermatosis (CAN). Commission E reports contraindications for fruit: hypersensitivity; adverse effects: allergic reactions (occasionally) (AEH). Seed, reportedly abortifacient and lactagogue, should not be used in pregnancy and lactation in amounts exceeding those used in foods (CAN). “Often used in pediatric practice” (BIS). Nursing mothers taking anise or fennel tea, or both, to stimulate lactation caused temporary CNS disturbances, emesis, lethargy, poor suckling, restlessness, and torpor in the newborn (15–20 days old), possibly due to anethole in the milk. (Infants were healthy at 6-month follow up.) (Acta Pediatrica 83:683; 1994). Excessive dose may interfere with anticoagulant, contraceptive, ERT, and MAOI therapy.
1 tsp crushed seed/cup water 3 ×/day; 3 g seed, or 300 mg seed oil/day (BIS; PHR); 0.5–1 g seed in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN; HHB); 0.5–3 g fruits (HH2); 20 g fruit in alcohol or water (JFM); 0.5–1 tsp tincture up to 3 ×/day (APA); 0.05–0.2 ml fruit EO (CAN; PNC); 0.3–1 ml anise water (CAN; PNC); 0.3–1.2 ml anise spirit (PNC).
pimpinella saxifraga
Not covered (AHP). None known (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Furanocoumarins may generate phototoxicity in fair-skinned people (PH2).
0.5–10 g root (HHB); 6–12 g dry root (KOM); 6–12 (–15) g root tincture (1:5) (KOM; PH2); 10–15 drops root tincture (MAD); 1 tsp (4.6 g) herb in wine (MAD).
pinellia ternata
Class 2b, 2d; contraindicated in all cases of bleeding or blood disorders (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PH2). Must be processed prior to use, cooking with ginger, vinegar, and/or alum (AKT). Not for long-term use, nor in pregnancy (AKT).
2–6 g/day powdered processed root (AKT).
pinus banksiana
pinus elliotii
pinus palustris
Commission E reports contraindications for EO: whooping cough; adverse effects: local irritation, exacerbation of bron-spasms (AEH). Though approving pure turpentine for “Chronic disease of the bronchii with heavy secretion” (which I translate to bronchosis), Commission E contraindicates for acute inflam-mation of the respiratory tract. Inhaled turpentine may reduce bronchial secretion (KOM). Even topical application to too much surface area may damage the CNS and kidneys (KOM). Turpentine is a counterirritant and rubefacient. Though also taken internally, turpentine might best be relegated to topical uses, if any.
Commission E suggests several drops turpentine in hot water for inhalation therapy (KOM). Otherwise for topical application only.
pinus pinaster
pinus strobus
Class 1 (AHP). Strangely, AHP says, “Regulated in the U.S. as an allowable flavoring agent in alcoholic beverages only” (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PH2).
pinus sylvestris
EOs, turpentines, turiones, testosterone
None for whole herb. EO contraindicated in bronchial asthma and pertussis (BGB); may irritate mucous membrane and skin, and may increase bronchospasm. No drug-drug interactions reported (KOM; PIP).
2–3 g shoots, or add several drops EO to hot water and inhale (KOM; PIP); 5–15 drops turpentine (MAD); massage with 10–50% EO in medium (PIP).
piper aduncum
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1 g leaf/cup tea (HHB; HH2); 1 g leaf/cup tea 3–4 ×/day (PH2); 0.5–2 g leaf 3–4 ×/day (PH2; MAD); 2–8 g powdered leaf (MAD).
piper auritum kunth.
safrole, elemicin, myrcene
Not covered (AHP; EFS; IED; KOM; PH2). Very rich in the carcinogen safrole.
Infusion of 1/2 leaf taken after a meal as a stomachic (JFM); one leaf in sweetened water (180 cc) (JFM); 15–30 drops tincture (10 g leaf in 150 cc alcohol) every 3 hours (JFM).
piper betle
Not covered (AHP). None reported (PHR). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
n/a
piper cubeba
Class 2d (AHP). Contraindicated in nephrosis (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). More than 8 g may irritate bladder, kidney, and urogenitals, causing albuminuria, cardialgia, cramps, dermatosis, diarrhea, nausea, rash, and vomiting (MAD; HH2; PH2).
2–4 g powdered fruits/day (HH2; PH2); 0.25–5 g/day (MAD); 2–4 ml 1:5 tincture (PH2).
piper longum
piper methysticum
kavalactones, kavapyrones, dihydrokavain, dihydromethysticin
Class 2b, 2c, 2d. Contraindicated for endogenous depression (AHP). Maximum tolerated doses for dogs was 60 mg/kg, for rats 320 mg/kg StX (70% kavapyrones). Perversely, if the authors didn’t misspeak, the dogs tolerated 24 mg/kg/day. Of >4000 patients taking 105 mg/day StX (70% kavapyrones), 1.5% had objectionable side effects (allergy, dizziness, GI distress, and headache). At levels 100 times the therapeutic dose (roughly 13 liters kava beverage a day or 300–400 mg rhizome per week) caused anorexia, ataxia, dyspnea, hair loss, red eyes, skin rash, visual problems, and yellow skin. “There is no potential for physical or psychological dependency. Use should not exceed 3 months.” (AHP) Germans limit use to 1–3 months (AHP). Commission E reports contraindications: esophageal and gastrointestinal stenoses; adverse effects: allergic reactions (rarely). Other sources report intestinal obstruction (AEH). Many reports suggest a yellowing of the skin in chronic users. “Chronic ingestion may lead to ‘kawism’ characterized by dry, flaking, discolored skin, and reddened eyes” (LRNP, May 1987). Persistent rumors suggest that overdoses can cause intoxication. Commission E warns against the concomitant use of kava with barbituates, antidepressant medications, and CNS agents. Lactating or pregnant women should not use kava (WAM). “Not permitted as a non-medicinal ingredient in oral use products in Canada” (Michols, 1995). Abuse by Australian Aborigines suggest links to hematuria, infectious disease, neurological abnormalities, pulmonary hypotension, nephrosis, visual disturbances, ischemic heart disease, thrombosis, and sudden heart attacks (MAB). The following quote might scare abusers, as it should, “Full consciousness is maintained with even fatal doses” (APA, quoting Weiss, 1988).
1 tsp cup/night (JAD); 1.5–3 g dry root/day (MAB); 100–300 mg root several ×/day (MAD); 2–4 g powdered root 1–3 ×/day (AHP; PNC); 2–4 ml liquid root extract (PNC); 3–6 ml fluid extract (1:2)/day (MAB); 1–3 ml tincture/day (SKY); 60–600 mg kavalactones/day (AHP); ca 250 ml kavalactones/day (24–70 mg 3 ×/day) (APA); 180–210 kavalactones 1 hour before bedtime (APA); 1 (525 mg) capsule (StX with 250 mg certified potency kava-kava root extract with at least 75 mg kavalactone) 3 ×/day (NH).
piper nigrum
piperine, chavicine, piperidine, mixed tocopherols, alpha-tocopherol, five phenolic amides, safrole
Class 1 (AHP) “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Although pepper contains the carcinogen safrole, it is at very low levels compared to sassafras.
Single doses 300–600 mg; daily dosage 1500 mg (HHB; PHR); 5–15 whole peppercorns for hemorrhoids (HHB); 1–15 grains (MAD); spice chicken soup with black pepper for congestion, cough, or head cold (RIN).
piper nigrum l.
piscidia piscipula
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Jamaica Dogwood) — Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). CAN cautions that high doses can cause irritation, numbness, salivation, and tremors. Because of irritant and uterine activity, in vitro and in vivo, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Said to be toxic parenterally but nontoxic orally (to 90,000 mg/kg in rats and rabbits). May potentiate pharmaceutical sedatives (CAN).
Boil 5 × 5 cm square of bark in 3 cups water as astringent mouthwash (AAB); 1–2 g root bark, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 ml liquid root bark extract (1:1 in 30% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–8 ml root bark tincture (BPC; CAN); boil 9 leaves with sugar water to make a cough syrup (JFM); 2–5 g liquid extract (MAD).
pistacia lentiscus
Tannins, Ellagitannins
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
150 ml 10% aqueous resin decoction/day (HH3).
plantago lanceolata
Class 1 (AHP). None known or reported (KOM; PIP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Some plantains may cause dermatosis (FAD). Contraindicated in GI stenosis, obstructed bowel (ileus), or poorly managed diabetes (PH2). Often causes allergy in hospital professionals. Like all high-fiber products, this may hinder absorption and/or uptake of more dangerous drugs. Mucilage from any plantain seed may lower cholesterol (FAD).
2–6 g shoot/dose up to 12–40 g/day (KOM; PH2; PIP); 2–4 g shoot/cup water (PHR).
plantago major
plantago ovata
soluble fiber, mucilage
Class 2d. Take with at least 8 oz liquid. Take 1 hour after taking other drugs, which it might chelate. Contraindicated in bowel, esophageal, or GI obstruction (AHP; PIP). Bulking agents should not be taken by those with stenotic lesions of the GI tract. May lead to bowel obstruction if fluid intake is inadequate. (Take 150 ml water/5 g psyllium (KOM)). Do not take bulking agents when laying down or at bedtime. Do not use with antiperistaltics (e.g., such as loperamide, for example) (SHT). Physicians and other health care professionals are developing increasingly allergic reactions to psyllium powder. There are reports of a fatal bronchospasm after oral ingestion of ispaghula, identical with, or closely related to psyllium. Commission E reports contraindications for seed and seed-shell: GI obstruction (ileus), and diabetes, which is hard to control (as insulin need may be reduced); adverse effects: allergic reactions; interactions: absorption of other drugs taken simultaneously. Other contraindications: intestinal obstruction (AEH). Based on early drafts, AHP repeats that psyllium is contraindicated in “diabetes mellitus which is difficult to regulate ...” There may be a need to reduce insulin dosage in insulin-dependent diabetes (KOM). If swallowed dry, psyllium can cause esophageal obstruction and flatulence (CAN). “Ispaghula husk depressed the growth of chickens by 15% when added to their diet at 2%.” By speeding transit time, bulk laxatives can lower absorption of some drugs. Wow! “Ispaghula may be used during pregnancy and lactation” (CAN). Alcoholic extract is hypotensive in small doses, hypertensive in large doses (KAP). Mucilage is hypoglycemic. Seeds of related species in China are used clinically to treat high blood pressure with ~50% success. “The FDA has proposed a rule that would amend the regulation permitting food labeling bearing a health claim on soluble fiber for a lower risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) to include soluble fiber from psyllium husks (Plantago asiatica L.).” The maker of one popular cereal petitioned, citing data from 57 clinical studies (1965–1996, including 21 human studies) on psyllium’s ability to lower cholesterol and CHD risk. FASEB has determined that psyllium is safe at levels up to 25 g/day. FDA counters that high levels of psyllium husk “may enhance epithelial cell proliferation in the GI tract or cause allergies in some people” (Johnston, B.J.; 1997). FDA proposes health claim for psyllium. HerbalGram 41:28.). HH2 reports 8-week clinical trials on hyperuremia with 7 g psyllium husks a day for 8 weeks. Blood levels of urea were 19% lower after the 8 weeks (Based on Rampton and Barton, 1984. Clin. Nephrol. 121: 159.) (HH2).
2.5–10 g seed 2–3 ×/day (AHP); 5–10 g (3 g in children) seed 3 ×/day (CAN); 10–30 g seed (black psyllium) (KOM); 12–40 g seed (blonde psyllium) (KOM); 6–12 g powdered seed (KAP); 56–112 ml bruised seed decoction (KAP); 2–4 ml liquid seed extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2 tsp (7.5 g) seed or 1 tsp husk/glass water (APA); 0.5 cup fresh seed or hull (PED); 1–2 tbsp dry seed or hull (PED); 1 tbsp dry seed or hull/cup of water (PED); 7.5 g seed or 5 g husks 1–2 ×/day (SKY); 3–5 g husks (CAN); 3–4 (565 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (JAD).
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (PH2). CAN cautions that a mustard-like oil is allergenic, irritant, and can cause dermatosis. Because of laxative and uterine activity, in vitro, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). Excessive doses may be hypotensive and laxative. Some plantain leaves were dangerously adulterated with digitalis in 1997.
2 tsp (7.5 g) seed or 1 tsp husk/glass water (APA); 2–4 tsp fresh seed (PED); 5–15 g dry seed (PED); 1–2 tsp dry seed/glass water (PED); 2–4 g leaf in tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 2.5–5 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC); 2–4 ml liquid leaf extract (1:1 in 25% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml leaf tincture (1:5 in 45% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
platycladus orientalis
thujone
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). But PH2 suggests the dose of 3–18 g, rather high for an herb they describe as “severely toxic.” If they are correct in their calculations, the herb would contain only 240 ppm thujone, much less than sage, for example.
3–9 g leaf (HH2); 3–18 g leaf (PH2).
platycodon grandiflorum
Class 2d. Contraindicated in hemoptysis and tuberculosis; administer only with caution to patients with peptic ulcer. Canadian law disallows balloon flower as nonmedicinal ingredient in oral use products (AHP).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Depresses CNS; may be synergistic with other sedatives and CNS depressants. Since the herb is hemolytic, should be used orally and not injected (WHO). Believed incompatible with Bletilla hyacintha and Gentiana scabra (WHO). Decoction Median LD = 24,000 mg/kg orl mouse; MLD platycodin 420 mg/kg orl mouse, 800 mg/kg orl rat, 22.3 mg/kg ipr mouse, 14.1 mg/kg ipr rat (WHO).
2–9 g (WHO); 3–9 g (FAY); 0.5 g powdered root per dose, to 6 g/day (PH2).
plectranthus barbatus
forskolin
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). I think of this as a food farmaceutical containing a powerful drug with many activities. But as Albert Leung so often and skillfully reminds us, the plant does not necessarily share the activities of its best known chemical constituent (present in tubers at levels ca. 0.45%). Contraindicated in hypotension. Forskolin may potentiate other drugs. Forskolin acts synergistically with calcitonin in inhibiting osteoclastic activity. Acts synergistically with hawthorn, which probably inhibits phosphodiesterase, which breaks down cAMP. Combining coleus and hawthorn should raise cAMP levels by stimulating production and inhibiting decomposition of cAMP. Responses to forskolin are reduced in muscle cells of failing hearts, but since forskolin also raises cAMP, it renders the coleus possibly useful even here.
50 mg StX (18% forskolin = 9 mg forskolin) 2–3 ×/day (APA); 6–12 g/day dry root or 6–12 ml fluid extract (1:1) (KEB).
plumbago zeylanica
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Plumbago) — Not covered (AHP).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Plumbagin stimulates the muscles at low doses, but paralyses at high dose (KAB).
9–15 g leaf or root (PH2).
podophyllum peltatum
Class 2b, 3 (AHP). Commission E reports contraindications for rhizome and resin external use in pregnancy. To be used 1–2 times weekly on skin surfaces not exceeding 15 cm2 (AEH). The resin is potentially lethal if ingested, and three deaths have been attributed to oral ingestion or topical application. An intrauterine death has been reported in a woman treated for vulvar warts (LRNP, January 1992). Etoposide is a semisynthetic derivative.
Do not take it (JAD); exclusively for external application, 1.5–3 g root (KOM; PH2); 0.5–2.5 g rhizome (MAD); 1.5–3 g rhizome fluid extract (KOM); 2.5–7.5 g rhizome tincture (KOM); 1–1.5 g rhizome tincture (MAD).
pogostemon cablin
pogostemon spp.
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Patchouli) — Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
coniine, alkaloids
Not covered (AHP). Classed by the FDA as unsafe containing the poisonous alkaloid coniine and other closely related alkaloids. Can cause contact dermatosis. Ingestion may cause debility, drowsiness, nausea, labored respiration, paralysis, asphyxia, and death. “Following lethal doses, animals rapidly begin to show symptoms; among them: paralysis of the tongue, mydriasis, head pressure, giddiness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and collapse into central paralysis, first the feet and legs, then the buttocks, arms, then paralysis of swallowing and speech. With increasing dyspnea and cyanosis, death ensues through central respiratory paralysis. LD is about 500–1000 mg coniine for man.” (CRC; HHB) (Note that in CRC (1985) I misquoted HHB and said 500 to 100).
Do not use it (JAD). Many of the indications are homeopathic. Maximum dose 300 mg; standard dose 100 mg; not to exceed 1500 mg/day (HHB; PHR; PH2).
Class 3 (AHP). CAN reports lectins to be mitogenic and toxic, and to cause cramps, nausea, and vomiting. Because of toxic constituents, uterine stimulation, and reputed affect on the menstrual cycle, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Ingestion or application of mitogenic berries (roots agglutinating but not mitogenic) to broken skin may induce hematologic changes and eosinophilia. Overdose of tea may cause abdominal cramps, diplopia, drowsiness, hematachezia, hematemesis, hypotension, tachycardia, vertigo, watery diarrhea, and weakness. Poke root may also induce convulsions, dyspnea, spasms, and death (CAN; FEL).
Do not use (APA); 0.2–1 g dry root/day (MAB); 60–300 mg root (MAD); 0.06–0.3 g powdered root (CAN; PNC); 0.1–0.5 ml liquid root extract (PNC); 0.1–0.5 ml liquid root extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.2–0.6 ml root tincture (CAN; PNC); saturated gin berry tincture for arthrosis (FEL); 2–4 dry berries/day for arthrosis (JAD); 0.15–0.7 ml tincture (1:5)/day (MAB); 60–100 mg (PH2).
polemonium reptans
Not covered (AHP; KOM).
No real dosage given (PH2).
polygala amara l.
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Bitter Milkwort) — Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
polygala senega
polygala tenuifolia
1.5–6 g dry root/day or 3–12 ml fl extract (1:2) (KEB).
polygonatum biflorum
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PH2). None reported.
Food farmacy, as the plant is eaten.
polygonatum biflorum (walter) elliot
polygonatum multiflorum (l.) all.
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PHR; PH2). Overdoses may lead to diarrhea, gastrosis, nausea, and queasiness.
polygonum aviculare
polygonum bistorta
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
1–2 g (PNC); 50–60 g rhizome/liter water for 15–20 minutes (PH2).
polygonum hydropiper
polygodial, silicic acid, warburganal
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). “Consumption of larger quantities of the fresh kraut (= herb) can cause gastroenterosis” (PH2). Plant is potentially allergenic (FAD).
600–3750 mg herb fluid extract (MAD); 1 tsp herb/cup 3 ×/day (PHR; PH2).
polygonum hydropiper l.
polygonum multiflorum
polygonum multiflorum thunb.
Dosages (Fo-Ti) — 6–15 g dry root (LAF); 4–5 g dry root or 8–16 ml fluid extract (1:2) (KEB); 0.5–1 dropper concentrated root extract 2–3 ×/day (APA); 3–5 g/cup water 3 ×/day (SKY); 5 (500 mg) tablets 3 ×/day (FAY; SKY); 2–3 (560 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (NH).
populus sp.
populus spp.
salicylates, tannin, zinc lignans, salicin, populin, salipopulin, derivatives, flavonoids
Class 1 (AHP). Subject to usual salicylates and tannin warnings (1997). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). In view of the lack of toxicological data, excessive use, especially during lactation and pregnancy, should be avoided. Individuals with aspirin or salicylate hypersensitivity, asthma, diabetes, gout, hemophilia, hepatosis, hypothrombinemia, nephrosis, and peptic ulcers should be cautious with salicylates. Alcohol, barbiturates, and oral sedatives may potentiate salicylate toxicity. Beware of salicylate interaction with oral anticoagulants, methotrexate, metoclopramide, phenytoin, pronebecid, spironolactone, and valproate. Salicylates excreted in breast milk reportedly can cause macular rashes in breast-fed babies (CAN).
5 g bud externally (PH2); 10 g bark and leaf (PH2); 1–4 g bark, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–4 ml liquid bark extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 5 g drug (PHR).
portulaca oleracea
potentilla anserina
Class 1 (AHP; JAD). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). No contraindications known (BIS). Commission E reports no contraindications, adverse effects, or interactions, except for gastric irritation (KOM). Other sources report adverse effects of GI disturbances (AEH; PH2). Sensitive individuals may experience stomach upset and vomiting (BIS). The warning with which CAN lambast uva-ursi should as well apply to other herbs with almost as much tannin: “In view of the high tannin content, prolonged use may cause chronic liver impairment.” (CAN). Containing tannin, its extracts might be expected to show antiallergic, antihypertensive, antiviral, immunostimulant and interferon-generating activities (BIS). Catechins have been specifically recommended for colitis (Brown et al., 1997).
2–6 g (1 tsp = 0.7–1.4 g) (BIS); 4–6 g herb/day (2 g/cup tea) (KOM; PH2). (2 tsp = ~2.8 g).
potentilla erecta
Class 1 (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Sensitive individuals may experience stomach upset and vomiting (BIS; KOM; SHT). The warning, with which CAN lambasts uva-ursi, should as well apply to other herbs with as much tannin, “In view of the high tannin content, prolonged use may cause chronic liver impairment.” No contraindications known (BIS). Consult physician if diarrhea persists for more than 3 days (PIP).
2–6 g herb (BIS); 2–3 g herb/cup (150 ml) (SHT); 10–20 drops herb tincture/glass water for mouthwash (KOM; PH2); 4–6 g crude drug (KOM; PH2; SHT); 2–4 ml liquid root extract (PNC).
potentilla erecta (l.) raeusch.
potentilla reptans
Not covered. Tannin-sensitive subjects may suffer gastric distress (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
3 g shoot or root/100 ml water, 2–3 cups/day (PH2).
Unknown ID
nitidine chloride, nitidine, chelerythrine, asirinin, neoherculin
Class 2b (AHP). None reported (PHR). Reported to be toxic to animals (CAN). Because of pharmacologically active alkaloids and coumarins, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. May interfere with anticoagulant therapy. Excessive use should be avoided (CAN).
1–3 g dry bark, or in tea, 3 ×/day (APA; CAN); 0.6–1.8 g powdered bark (MAD); 1–3 ml liquid bark extract (PNC); 1–3 ml liquid bark extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (APA; CAN); 2–5 ml bark tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5–1.5 g dry berries (CAN); 0.5–1.5 ml liquid berry extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) (APA; CAN); 0.5–1.5 ml liquid fruit extract (PNC).
primula veris
Class 1 (AHP). Occasional GI distress and nausea recorded (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports for flower, contraindications: hypersensitivity; adverse effects: GI disturbances (occasionally). For root, GI disturbances (occasionally) (AEH; KOM). The Herbal PDR lists diarrhea, gastric discomfort, nausea, and queasiness as side effects of the root (PH2). CAN cautions the quinones are allergenic. May interfere with blood pressure therapy (CAN).
1–2 g flower as tea 3 ×/day (APA; CAN; HH2); 2–4 g flower (KOM; PH2; PIP); 1–2 ml liquid flower extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (APA; CAN); 2.5–7.5 g flower tincture (KOM; PIP); 0.5–1.5 g root (KOM; PIP); 0.2–0.5 g finely cut root (PH2); 1.5–3 g root tincture (KOM; PIP).
prosopis juliflora
Allergenic (f; CRC), Antibacterial (f; CRC), Cyanogenic (f; CRC), Discutient (f; CRC), Emetic (f; CRC), Laxative (f; CRC), Poison (f; CRC), Stomachic (f; CRC), Vulnerary (f; CRC)
Unknown ID
soluble silicic acid, Flavonoids
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Prostrate Knotweed) — Not covered (AHP). None at proper dosage (PHR). Shoot tincture LD50 = 500 mg/kg ipr rat (HH2). Flavonoids are an antiaggregant (PH2).
2–3 tsp herb (4.8–7.2 g) in hot teas/day (HHB); 5 g herb (HH2); 2 g herb/cup tea (HH2); 4–6 g/day or cup of tea (1.5 g herb) 3–5 ×/day (PHR); food farmacy in India where eaten as a veggie (WOI).
prunella vulgaris
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Loaded with natural antioxidants, this edible weed contains more rosmarinic acid than rosemary itself.
One tbsp dry herb/cup water; or do as they do in West Virginia, eat a half cup of “eel-oil” greens (JAD).
prunus africana
Phytosterols, Pentacyclic terpenes, Crataegolic acid, Oleanolic acid, Ursolic acid, Ferulic acid esters of fatty alcohols
“Devoid of severe side effects ... mutagenesis and teratogenesis” (SHT). Rare reports of GI irritation in clinical studies of lipophilic extract (SKY). Varro Tyler cautioned against self medication with BPH. Whenever treating BPH a practitioner should be involved. Base-line levels of PSA should be established before considering an herbal treatment (JAD).
100–200 mg/day StX (lipophilic); 50–100 mg StX (13% sterols calculated as beta-sitosterol) 2 ×/day (SKY).
prunus cerasus
Perillyl alcohol
Sour cherries is a 10 times better analgesic than aspirin (JNU). Perillyl alcohol may protect against cancer (JNU).
prunus domestica
Plums and prunes are great antioxidants, hence antiaging. Food farmacy in my book.
prunus dulcis
“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Ten bitter almonds said to be fatal to children, 60 to an adult (PH2). Of U.S. citizens, 0.5% show sensitivity to tree nuts, 0.6% to peanuts, and an additional 0.3% allergic to nuts but not specifying or differentiating between tree nut and peanut allergy. | Class 3 (AHP). Ten bitter almonds said to be fatal to child, 60 to adult (PHR).
30 ml oil as laxative (APA); 15–30 ml almond oil (PNC).
prunus laurocerasus
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PHR; PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Overdoses can cause cyanide poisoning.
1.5–6 g cherry laurel water (MAD).
prunus serotina
Cyanogenic glycosides, prunasin
Class 2d. Cyanogenic glycosides (prunasin yielding up to 1500 ppm (HCN)). In pediatrics, do not use high doses or for more than 1 week (WAM). Not for long-term use. Do not exceed recommended dose (2–4 g bark) (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). “Not allowed as a non-medicinal ingredient in oral use products in Canada” (Michols, 1995).
2–4 g bark (AHP); 1 oz bark/pint water (FEL); 1 tsp powdered bark/cup water 1–3 ×/day (APA); 0.25–0.5 tsp bark tincture 1–3 ×/day (APA); 2–4 ml bark tincture (PNC); 2–4 ml bark tincture 3–4 ×/day (SKY); 2.5–10 ml bark syrup (PNC).
prunus spinosa l.
Class 2d. Not for long-term use. Do not exceed recommended dose. Cyanogenic glycosides present, as in many Rosaceae, in flowers and seeds, at least (AHP). None known (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
2–4 g fruit (KOM; PH2); 1–2 g flower or fruit, or 1–2 tsp as a tea, to 2 ×/day (AHP); 2 tsp flower (= 2 g) in cold or hot tea (MAD).
prunus virginiana
pseudotsuga menziesii
psidium guajava
Do not use more than 30 days (TRA). Not for children or pregnant or lactating women (TRA).
psophocarpus tetragonolobus
betulinic acid
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2).
Flowers, pods, seeds and roots are food farmacy (JAD).
psychotria ipecacuanha
Cephaeline, emetine
Class 2b, 2d. Contraindicated I in patients with cardiac problems. Not for long-term use. May cause nausea and vomiting (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages when used as an expectorant” (PH2). Allergenic and myopathogenic after prolonged dosing (PHR). Toxic doses may lead to convulsions, corrosion of GI mucous membranes, hypotension, respiratory dysfunction, shock, tachycardia, and maybe even coma (PHR). Cephaeline is more irritant and almost twice as toxic as emetine (WO2). Ironically, while used primarily as a nauseant to induce the vomiting of poisons, in low doses the herb serves as an antinauseant, and folklorically, even in morning sickness (APA).
Emetic dose = 15 ml; (AHP); 0.4–1.4 ml ipecac syrup (AHP); 0.25–1 ml root tincture (APA); 0.25–1 ml liquid root extract (APA; PNC); 25–100 mg powdered ipecac (PNC).
ptelea trifoliata l.
Not covered (AHP; KOM). None at standard dosages (PH2). Phototoxicity is possible with the citrus family.
0.5 fluid oz cold bark infusion every 2–4 hours (FEL).
pterocarpus santalinus
Class 1. In the United States, it is allowable as flavor in alcoholic beverages only (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
5 g tincture (200 parts powdered wood/1000 parts ethanol) (PH2).
ptychopetalum olacoides
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Brazilian scientists, Siquera et al. (1998), mention that Amazon caboclos take the roots in alcohol for “nervous weakness,” a syndrome with several symptoms: depression, lassitude, sexual impotence, and tremors. A hydroalcoholic extract at 200 mg/kg potentiates yohimbine-induced lethality, reverses reserpine-induced ptosis, and prevents apomorphine-induced stereotypy. The data suggest that muira puama is a CNS active, interacting with the dopaminergic or noradrenergic systems. The authors speculate that, since some of the symptoms resemble Parkinsonian symptoms, roots could have antiparkinsonian effects. Their extracts did affect pharmacological models for depressions, impotence, and tremors.
2–4 ml liquid root extract (APA); 0.5–5 ml liquid root extract (PNC); 1 dropper prior to sex (APA); 15–25 drops fluid extract 2–3 days for aphrodisia (MAD); 5–8 drops tincture for dysentery (MAD); 0.5–2 ml decoction or liquid extract 3 ×/day (10 parts dry herb, 2 parts grape brandy, 1 part glycerine) (PH2).
pueraria montana var. lobata
daidzein, genistein, daidzin, soyasaponin I, kudzusaponin SA-3
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PHR). Long food use in Asia suggests relative safety. No adverse effects in humans taking 50–100 g root/day (APA).
5–15 g day (AKT); 4.5–9 g root (FAY); 9–15 g root/day (SKY); 12 shot glasses fresh root juice for unconscious drunk (FAY); 3 (100 mg) capsules root extract StX (1 mg daidzin) daily (APA); 1 (550 mg) capsule root extract (100 mg) StX (1 mg Daidzin) 3 ×/day (NH).
pulmonaria officinalis
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Plant is said to accumulate Cu, Fe, Mn, and P (HHB).
1.5 g (ca. 2 tsp) leaf/cup tea (HHB; HH2; PH2); 4.4–6.6 g (ca. 4–6 tsp) leaf (HHB; MAD); 2–4 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC).
punica granatum
casuarinin, ellagitannin, punicortein C
Bark class 3. Pericarp class 2d. Contraindicated with diarrhea; not to be taken with fats or oils when taken to kill parasites (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Strong doses emetic, nauseant, and vertigogenic (JFM). Stronger doses (>80 g) may cause chills, collapse, dizziness, hematemesis, and visual disturbances, possibly even amaurosis and death (MAD; PH2). Even Mauritians believe the bark should be contraindicated in geriatrics, pediatrics, and pregnancy.
Fruits are food farmacy (JAD); 4–8 g powdered fruit (KAP); 5–20 g bark as taenifuge (MAD); 1–2 g bark daily (HHB); 5–12 g bark (root bark or stem bark) in 240 cc water boiled until 1/3 gone, take in 3 hourly doses on empty stomach 2 hours after taking 40 cc castor oil (JFM); 250 parts powdered bark in 1500 parts water and boiled for 30 minutes (PH2); 4–5 g powdered flower (KAP); 7 g flower/300 cc water for inflamed mouth and throat (JFM); 1–3 g powdered root (KAP); 1–3 g powdered seed bark (KAP); 1 part pericarp, root, or stembark:5 parts water (PHR).
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
30–60 grains powder (FEL); 2–4 g in tea (HHB); 3 g herb/100 ml tea 2–3 ×/day (PH2); 20 g herb to 100 ml 20% ethanol, steep 5 days, take 2–3 tsp/day (PH2); 0.5 g liquid extract (children), 3–5 g (adult) (MAD); 1–3 oz decoction (FEL).
pyrola rotundifolia
Chimaphilin, Hydroquinones
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Chimaphilin may be irritant. Hydroquinones not for long-term consumption (PH2).
1–2 fluid oz decoction 3–4 ×/day (FEL); 1–30 drops strong tincture (FEL).
pyrus communis
Not covered (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
Fruit is food farmacy (JAD; PH2).
quassia amara
quercus infectoria
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Oakgall) — Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1 part gall:5 parts wine (PH2).
quercus spp.
Class 2d (AHP). Contraindicated even for external use when skin is extensively damaged, especially with weeping eczema, febrile and infectious disorders, and cardiac insufficiency states III and IV, hypertonia stage IV (AHP). Commission E reports interactions for bark: reduced absorption of alkaloids and other basic substances (AEH). Should not be taken for more than 3–4 days (SHT).
1 tsp (~3 g) bark cup/water/day (APA); gargle with 2 tsp bark/pint water (APA); 3 g dry bark (KOM); 3–6 g dry bark (PED); 4.5 g dry bark:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 1–1.5 tsp (~4–6 g) bark/day in hot or cold tea (MAD); 5 g bark/liter water for baths; 20 g bark/liter water for compresses; 2–4 tbsp fresh bark (PED); 0.5–5 ml liquid bark extract (PNC).
quillaja saponaria
Class 2d. Irritant; powder irritates mucosa (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Overdose may trigger diarrhea, enterosis, gastrosis with stomachache, and vertigo (PHR; PH2).
200 mg bark as tea (AHP; HH3); 1.5–5 g bark decoction in 150 g water 2–3 ×/day (MAD).
Unknown ID
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
Fruit food farmacy. 1 tsp seed/cup water (PH2).
rabdosia spp. l.
oridonin
ranunculus acris
Protoanemonin, Serotonin, Tryptamine derivatives, anti-5-hydroxytryptamine derivatives
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Tall Buttercup) — Not covered (AHP). Avoid (FAD). Very acrid, causing burning of mouth and mucous membranes; blistering skin. Protoanemonin antibacterial (against Gram-positive and Gram-negative, Candida, diphtheria toxin, Escherichia, and Staphylococcus) antiviral, cytopathogenic, vesicant, and vermicide (WOI). Closely related R. sceleratus contains the vasoconstrictor serotonin, with six other tryptamine derivatives and “two unidentified anti-5-hydroxytryptamine derivatives”.
N/A
ranunculus bulbosus
Protoanemonin
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Bulbous Buttercup) — Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Contraindicated “absolutely” in pregnancy (PHR; PH2). Protoanemonin with significant antiseptic activity on aerobes, anaerobes, dermatophytes, and yeast, including MDR pathogens.
Homeopathic (PH2).
ranunculus ficaria
In view of the data, excessive use, especially during lactation and pregnancy, should be avoided. Not recommended for internal consumption (CAN).
2–5 g herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–5 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2.5–5 ml liquid extract (PNC); 3% topical root ointment (CAN); 30% fresh pilewort in benzoinated lard (CAN).
ranunculus sceleratus
Protoanemonin, serotonin, six other tryptamine derivatives, two unidentified anti-5-hydroxytryptamine derivatives
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Like most buttercups, it is acrid, causing burning of mouth and mucous membranes; blistering skin. Fatal if eaten in large quantities (WOI).
Boiled herb is dangerous if consumed as food (DEP; WOI).
raphanus raphanistrum
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Overdoses can irritate mucous membranes (PH2).
raphanus sativus
allyl-isothiocyanates, isopropyl-isothiocyanates, methyl-isothiocyanates, sulphoraphene [sic], 4-methylsulfinyl-3-butenyl-cyanide, Raphanin, machrolysin
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Due to the cholagogic effect of the drug, biliary colic could be triggered among patients with gallstones (PHR). Contraindicated in cholelithiasis (KOM; PIP). No drug-drug interactions or side effects reported (KOM; PIP).
Food farmacy in my book. 50–100 ml expressed juice (HH2; KOM; PIP); 1.3 kg radish yield 1 liter radish juice (PH2).
rauvolfia caffra
Poisonous (ZUL).
rauvolfia serpentina
serpentine, ajmaline, serpentinine, reserpine
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports for root, contraindications, adverse effects, and interactions of the toxic alkaloid reserpine (AEH). Contraindications: depression, lactation, pheochromocytoma, pregnancy, and ulcer (KOM; PH2). Side effects, often with minimum therapeutic dose (WOI), include depression, dizziness, drowsiness, dyspnea, erectile dysfunction, lethargy, rash, and reactive changes (dangerous while driving), reduced sexual potency, and stuffy nose (KOM; PH2; WOI). Drug interactions: appetite suppressants, barbiturates, digitalis glycosides, levodopa, neuroleptics, and sympathomimetics (KOM). Reserpine, by its dopamine-depleting effect, may raise prolactin levels. Galactorrhea is one side effect of reserpine. Reserpine given orally to rabbits increased mammary gland secretions. Hypothalmic dopamine inhibits prolactin. Conversely estrogens promote prolactin production (in males and females). Galactorrhea is a side effect of
1–3 g powdered root for insanity (KAP); 20–30 g powdered root for high blood pressure (KAP); 200 mg root/day for 1–3 weeks (WHO); 600 mg drug or 6 mg alkaloids (KOM; HH2; PH2).
rauvolfia tetraphylla
Has reportedly caused fatalities.
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR).
isoflavonoids, formononetin, coumarins, Biochanin
Class 2b (AHP). Not covered by Commission E (KOM). CAN cautions that the isoflavonoids are estrogenic. Because of estrogenic activity, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Safe at levels normally consumed by humans, clovers have so much estrogenic activity that pregnant animals grazing heavily on them may suffer miscarriage. Estrogenic compounds, especially formononetin, may cause growth disorders, infertility, and urticaria (CAN). Apparently, healthy clovers may be fungally infected with much higher levels of estrogens, rarely even slaframine, a toxic fungal metabolite (JAD). Avoid fermented clover (SKY). Coumarins and isoflavonoids may interfere with coagulant and hormonal therapy (CAN). Biochanin is chemoprotective, inhibiting carcinogenic activity in cell cultures (CAN). A small 1994 study found increases in teat size and certain measurements of the uterus, along with other suggestive estrogen-like reactions, in three heifers fed large amounts of red clover silage for fourteen days (APA).
10–30 drops flower tincture (dried 1:5) 2–6 ×/day (AKT); 1–3 tsp dry flowers/cup water/up to 3 ×/day (APA; SKY); 4 g dry flowers, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN; PH2); 1.5–3 ml liquid flower extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 ml flower tincture (1:10 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 3 (350 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (JAD, NH); 1–2 tbsp fresh flower (PED); 2–3 g dry flower (PED); 3 g dry flower:15 ml alcohol/15 ml water (PED); 2.5–10 ml liquid flower extract (PNC); 2–4 ml flower tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 2–6 g dry flowers 3 ×/day (SKY).
rehmannia glutinosa
9–30 g powdered root/day (AKT); 2–6 g dry root/day (KEB); 10–30 g dry root/day (MAB); 5 g root chewed 1–3 ×/day (APA); 5 g root/cup water 1–3 ×/day (APA); 9–15 (-60) g root (FAY); 9–15 g root/day (PH2); 9–30 g root (HH2); 15 g root/500 ml red wine (APA); 4–12 ml fluid root extract (1:2) (KEB; MAB).
rhamnus cathartica
hydroxyanthracene, glucofrangulin A, anthranoids
Class 2b (AHP). Commission E reports for fruit, contraindications, adverse effects, and interactions of anthranoid laxatives (AEH). Contraindicated in obstruction of the bowel or intestines, acute inflammation of the bowels as in appendicitis, colitis, and Crohn’s disease. Do not use if under 12 years of age, or pregnant (KOM; PH2). See anthranoids in introductory section. Berry extract induce tumor necrosis in mice (PNC).
0.6–5 g fruit. (HHB); 0–20 berries (MAD); 15–30 g juice; children 0.5–1 tsp syrup (MAD); 4 g dry fruit/cup tea, 2–5 g drug/day corresponding to 20–30 mg hydroxyanthracene (calculated as glucofrangulin A) (PH2); 2–4 ml buckthorn berry syrup (PNC).
rheum australe
oxalates, anthraquinones, tannins, stilbene derivatives
Not covered (AKP; KOM; PH2). Probably contains oxalates and anthraquinones, and deserves the same cautionary notes as the Chinese and European species. Maybe so, maybe not. Here I read in an Indian book more than 100 years old regarding the Himalayan Rhubarb, “It is less active and has often been pronounced worthless” (DEP). And WOI (1972) warns about things that were not even warned about by conservative AHP, “Its use is prohibited for patients suffering from gout, rheumatism, epilepsy, and uric acid problems” (WOI). Conservatively, here are the warnings for the more dangerous species. Viz. Class 2b, 2c, 2d. Beware of anthraquinones, oxalates, and tannins (AHP). Commission E reports for bark, contraindications, adverse effects, and interactions of anthranoid laxatives (AEH). CAN cautions that the anthraquinones are laxative and irritate the GI tract. Because of the anthraquinones, nonstandardized preparations should be avoided during pregnancy and lactation (CAN). “Anthraquinones may be secreted into breast milk.” Also contraindicated in arthrosis, hemorrhoids, and nephropathy (CAN), intestinal obstruction, abdominal pain of unknown causes, any enterosis (appendicitis, colitis, Crohn’s disease, and irritable bowel syn- drome), hemorrhoids, nephropathy, menstruation (AHP), and urethrosis (CAN). Not for use in cases of diarrhea or abdominal pain. Discontinue use if diarrhea or watery stools occur. Consult a health care provider in cases of pregnancy or lactation. Not for long-term use, use more than 8–10 days, or overdosage (AHP, CAN). Rhubarb leaves, high in oxalic acid, should not be eaten (CAN). One case of anaphylaxis following ingestion reported (CAN). Contains 4–11% stilbene derivatives, which pose such risks that the herb “can no longer be recommended” (SHT). While widely used, anthranoid-containing laxatives can be habit-forming; some contain compounds suspected of being cytotoxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, and even tumorigenic. Epidemiological studies in Germany reveal that abusers of anthranoid laxatives have a three times higher rate of colon carcinoma (AEH).
0.2–1 g (HHB; HH2); 5–20 g (KAP).
rheum palmatum
hydroxyanthracene derivatives, rhein, anthraquinones, oxalates, tannins
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Rhubarb) — Class 2b, 2c, 2d. Beware of anthraquinones, oxalates, and tannins (AHP). Commission E reports for bark, contraindications,
0.5–1.5 g dry plant (WHO); 0.2–1.0 g root (CAN); 0.1–4 g root (SHT); 0.12–4.8 g root (APA); 1–5 g root (AHP); 3–12 g root (FAY); 3–12 g root/day (APA; FAY); 0.1–0.3 g root as stomachic, 1–2 g as laxative (MAD); 1–2 g root as laxative, 0.1–0.2 g as astringent and stomachic (PHR; PH2); 1–6 g powdered root (AKT); 0.1–0.2 g powdered root/cup 1–2 ×/day (APA); 0.1–1 tsp (0.25–2.5 g) powdered root/cup water 1–2 ×/day (APA); 1–6 g dry root/day or 2–12 ml fluid extract (1:2) (KEB); 120–500 mg dry root extract (PNC); up to 15 ml root tincture (PNC); up to 15 ml tincture/day (APA); 20–30 mg hydroxyanthracene derivatives/day calculated as rhein (KOM); 10–30 mg hydroxyanthracene derivatives at bedtime (WHO).
rhododendron ferrugineum
toxic diterpenes, arbutin, hydroquinone
Not covered (AHP). Commission E reports for leaf, toxic diterpenes may be present and chronic use may lead to hydroquinone poisoning (due to the presence of arbutin) (AEH; HH2). Signs of intoxication: arrhythmia, bradycardia, cold sweats, cramps, diarrhea, dyspnea, hypotension, paresthesia, poor coordination, salivation, stupor, finally leading to possible death through apnea or cardiac failure (PH2). There are no reports of serious instances of poisoning of patients used to taking it as an infusion in folk medicine (daily dose 5–6 g).
5–6 g in infusion (HH2; PHR; PH2).
rhododendron ponticum
grayanotoxins
Don’t take it (JAD)
0.2 mg grayanotoxins up to 2 mg/day (HH2)
rhododendron ponticum l.
grayanotoxins, arbutin, hydroquinone
Not covered (AHP). Taken over a long period it may cause intoxication with hydroquinone because of arbutin (HH2). Signs of intoxication include arrhythmia, bradycardia, cold sweats, cramps, diarrhea, dyspnea, hypotension, paresthesia, poor coordination, salivation, stupor, and possible death through apnea or cardiac failure (PH2). Grayanotoxins may prevent closure of sodium channels thus inhibiting conduction (HH2).
Don’t take it (JAD); 0.2 mg grayanotoxins up to 2 mg/day (HH2).
rhus aromatica
Not covered (AHP; KOM). None noted (PHR). May cause dermatosis (FAD). Contraindicated in inflammation (FAD).
1 tsp fluid extract 3–4 ×/day for BPH (FEL); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PNC); 1 g dry root bark (HH2; PHR).
rhus glabra
Tannins, gallic acid, 4-methoxygallic acid, methyl gallate
Class 1 (AHP). May cause dermatosis (FAD). Too much bark is a laxative (AHP). Tannins (24.3–35% in bark) may explain many activities.
1 tsp fruit in tea 1–2 ×/day (AHP); 0.6–2 g powdered fruit (PNC); 4–8 ml liquid fruit extract (PNC); 4–8 ml liquid root bark extract (PNC).
rhynchosia pyramidalis
Narcotic hallucinogen (CRC).
rhynchosia pyramidalis (lam.) urb.
ribes nigrum
[+]-catechin, Anthocyanins, polyphenols
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered by Commission E (KOM). None known (PHR). Not covered (CAN). Leaves not covered (AHP). Leaves contraindicated in edema stemming from reduced cardiac or renal activity (PHR; PH2). | Fruit Class 1; seed not covered (AHP). Not covered by Commission E (KOM).
600–6000 mg/day; 4 (250 mg) capsules 2 ×/day; 1–2 tsp chopped leaf, up to several ×/day (APA); 5–10 ml fruit syrup, 1–several ×/day (PHR; PH2); 1 glassful fruit juice/day; gargle with 1 part juice/1 part water (PHR). 1–2 tsp (2-4 g) leaf/150 ml boiling water, strain after 10 minutes, 3–4 ×/day (APA; PHR; PH2). | 200–400 mg capsules StX for 14–19% GLA (APA); for atopic eczema, 4 (250 mg) capsules 2 ×/day (APA).
ribes rubrum
Anthocyanins, polyphenols
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
Unknown ID
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
Food farmacy (JAD). Here’s the “dosage” from PH2, “Rice seeds are boiled in water before ingestion.”
ricinus communis
ricin, ricinoleic acid
Class 2b, 2d. Contraindicated in intestinal obstruction and abdominal pain of unknown origin, appendicitis, inflammatory bowel disease; do not use more than 8–10 days (AHP; PHR). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages of the oil” (PH2). Overdoses can cause colic, drastic diarrhea, gastralgia and gastrosis, queasiness, and vomiting (PHR). The seeds contain 2.8–3% toxic substances, requiring 2.5–20 seed to kill a man (chewing a single seed may be fatal to a child), 4 to kill a rabbit, 5 a sheep, 6 an ox, 6 a horse, 7 a pig, 11 a dog, but 80 for a cock or duck. The principal toxin is the albumin, ricin (DAD). Though some recommend in pregnancy, others do not. Midwives sometimes use the oil to induce labor (AHP). Refined oil contraindications: intestinal obstruction, unexplained stomachache; adverse effects: frequent use produces electrolyte losses (interaction with cardiac glycosides), also gastric irritation, and allergic skin reactions. Should not be used for prolonged periods (AEH). Not for children under 12 years old (PHR). May induce dermatosis as well as cure it (FAD).
5–20 ml oil (PNC); 15–60 ml oil (APA); 5–28 ml castor oil (KAP); 9–15 g leaf paste (KAP); 3–6 g root paste (KAP); 5 (2 g) or 10 (1 g) capsules (PHR).
robinia pseudoacacia
Poison B (f; CRC)
sesquiterpene lactones, coumarin, Azulenes
Class 2b (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). CAN cautions that the sesquiterpene lactones may cause allergic reactions. Because it is reputed to be an abortifacient and to affect the menstrual cycle with excessive use, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Because of coumarin content, may interfere with anticoagulant therapy (CAN). Azulenes, documented as antiinflammatory and hypoallergenic, may prevent allergic seizures in guinea pigs, perhaps through antihistaminic activity.
1 g flower as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–4 ml (1:1 in 70% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml liquid floral extract (PNC); 0.1–0.5 g floral extract (PNC); 0.03–2 ml EO (PNC).
rosa canina
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). None known for the fruits (PHR; WAM). 15% tannins.
0.75–3 tsp chopped fruit/cup water 1–3 ×/day (APA; JAD; WIC); 2 g fruit (PH2); 0.25–0.5 cup fresh fruit (PED); 1–2 g dry fruit/cup water (PHR); 6–12 g dry fruit (PED); 9 g dry fruit/cup boiling water (PED); 2–5 g in infusion (HH3).
rosmarinus officinalis
oleanolic acid, carnosol, ursolic acid, bornyl acetate, cineole, borneol, pinenes, rosmaricine derivative
Class 2b. Abortifacient, emmenagogue, and uterotonic (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper thera-peutic dosages” (PH2). For the leaves, Commission E reports none known. Commission E reports for the root, contraindications: pregnancy, lactation; adverse effects: harmless red discoloration of the urine (AEH). Like any EO, that of rosemary can be toxic in large quantities, causing
1 tsp (2 g) chopped leaf/cup water (APA; PH2); 4–6 g herb (APA; KOM); 2 tsp (4.2 g) herb in cold or hot tea (MAD); 2–4 ml herb (1:1 in 45% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); let 20 g rosemary steep 5 days in 1 liter wine (PH2); 0.3–1.2 ml rosemary spirit (APA; PNC); 2–4 g shoot in tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml liquid shoot extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 3–6 drops internally (FEL); 10–20 drops EO (KOM suggests 1 ml (2 drops) would be more reasonable) (KOM).
rubia cordifolia
rubia tinctorum
alizarin, lucidin, purpurin
The court is still out on whether or not alizarin, lucidin, and purpurin from Rubia tinctorum exert a disintegrating effect on the surface of bladder and kidney stones containing calcium. Since extracts of the root are mutagenic and contain genotoxic and tumorigenic compounds, it is not to be recommended (De Smet, 1993). “Drug should not be administered” (PH2).
Do not take it (JAD; PH2); 30 grains root 3–4 ×/day (FEL); 1 g powdered root 3 ×/day (MAD).
rubus idaeus
Anthocyanins, polyphenols, tannins
Class 1 (AHP). Should not be used during pregnancy, and, if taken during labor, should only be done under medical supervision. Still, raspberry leaf is widely recommended to be taken during pregnancy to help facilitate easier parturition. Unsuitable to use as an herbal remedy to treat eye infections such as conjunctivitis (CAN). While I thought of raspberry as astringent and maybe even binding, Lininger et al. (1998) say it may cause mild loosening of stools and nausea (SKY).
1–2 tsp crushed leaf/cup water to 6 ×/day (APA; SKY; WIC); 1.5 g finely cut leaf (PHR); 0.25–0.5 cup fresh leaf (PED); 6–12 g dry leaf (PED); 4–8 g dry leaf, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 9 g dry leaf:45 ml alcohol/45 ml water (PED); 2–10 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC); 4–8 ml liquid leaf extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN; SKY); 1–3 (384 mg) leaf capsules 3 ×/day (APA).
rubus spp.
Anthocyanins, polyphenols
Class 1 (AHP).
1–2 tsp chopped leaf/cup water, up to 6 ×/day; 4 tsp (~4.4 g) leaf in hot tea; 1.5 g leaf/cup tea, 2–3 ×/day (PH2); 1–2 tsp powdered bark/cup water; up to 2 tsp tincture/day (APA); 1500 mg root tea up to 3 ×/day (APA); 20–30 grains powdered root bark (FEL); 2–4 ml liquid root extract (PNC).
Class 1 (AHP), U.S. regulations prohibit food use at levels of 2 ppm. Class 2b, 2d. Contraindicated in poor kidney function; avoid excess sunlight (AHP). Commission E reports leaf and herb EO is toxic and can produce contact dermatosis. Phototoxic reactions are possible (furocoumarins) (AEH). Though loaded with antis-
Should not be used (APA); 0–1.5 g herb as emmenagogue (MAD); 0.5–1 g herb, several ×/day (PH2); 1–2 tsp herb/cup water 1–3 ×/day (RFW); 1–2 g dried herb (PNC); herb juice applied directly in earache and toothache (PH2), not me; 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 2–6 drops EO (HH2).
rumex acetosa l.
rumex acetosella
Polysaccharides, Oxalic acid
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Sheep Sorrel) — Class 2d (AHP). Those with kidney stones should avoid this plant. Oxalates should be avoided by patients with endometriosis and nephrosis. Oxalic acid levels may attain 10–35% of dry matter in some species. The LDlo reported for humans is 700 mg/kg body weight. Weighing 110 kg, my LDlo would be 77,000 mg, or 77 g (more than 2 ounces of oxalic acid) (HOW). | Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). 100 lb leaf yields 30 lb juice, yields 10 oz “Salt of Lemons” (potassium superoxalate = ?potassium binoxalate = poisonous ink remover).
As a food pharmaceutical, a USDA 100-g serving of fresh sorrel equates to about 10 g of dry sorrel (HOW). | Evaporate the sorrel juice in sun, adding juice of red clover leaves and flowers, thickening with white oak ashes, applying topically to cancers, especially breast cancer (CEB). Others suggest sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella), which is in the Essiac formula.
rumex aquaticus
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Food, but oxalate poisoning is a remote possibility (PH2). Eaten as a vegetable.
4–8 ml liquid root extract (PNC).
rumex crispus
Oxalates, Tannins, Anthraquinones
Class 2d oxalates. Patients with kidney stone should beware. Tannins (AHP). CAN cautions that anthraquinones can be laxative and irritate the GI tract. Because of the anthraquinones, nonstandardized preparations should be avoided during pregnancy and lactation (CAN). Anthraquinones can be secreted into breast milk. Also contraindicated in endometriosis, hemorrhoids, and nephropathy (CAN; JAD), intestinal obstruction, abdominal pain of unknown causes, any enteritis (appendicitis, colitis, Crohn’s disease, irritable bowel syndrome), menstruation (AHP). Do not use more than 8–10 days (AHP). Do not use this product if you have abdominal pain or diarrhea. Consult a health care provider prior to use if pregnant or nursing. Discontinue use in the event of diarrhea or watery stools. Do not exceed recommended dose. Not for long-term use. These are the recommendations normally given for anthraquinone-containing plants, but not given for this anthraquinone-containing plant (AHP). Overuse may cause abdominal cramps and diarrhea, and prolonged use may cause intestinal atrophy and hypokalemia (CAN). Methinks you can say that about any laxative, adding electrolyte imbalance to the consequences. Large doses should be avoided due to the oxalate content (PNC). One fatality reported from too much yellow dock soup, perhaps due to oxalate poisoning (PHR). Herbal extract is mildly antibacterial toward Gram-positive (Mycobacterium, Staphylococcus) and Gram-negative (Escherichia, Shigella). Anthraquinones can arrest growth of ringworm and other fungi (FAD). Can work either way, the anthraquinones are a laxative, the tannins are an astringent (FAD).
2–4 tbsp fresh root (PED); 3–6 g dry root (PED); 4.5 g dry root:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 2–4 g dry root, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 g powdered root (MAD); 2–4 ml liquid root extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 ml root tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–3 (505 mg) root capsules 3 ×/day (APA); 500–505 mg capsules (PH2); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC).
rumex hymenosepalus
Class I (AHP) not covered (KOM; PH2).
rumex vesicarius
High oxalate content dangerous to cattle and susceptible humans.
Leaves food farmacy (JAD), available almost year round in India, for example.
ruscus aculeatus
ruscogenin, neoruscogenin
Class 1 (AHP; SKY). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E
300-mg tablets (APA); 7–11 mg ruscogenin (or neoruscogenin + ruscogenin)/day or equivalent in raw extract (KOM; PH2); 1–2 tbsp fresh root (PED); 1.5–3 g dry root (PED); 2 g dry root :10 ml alcohol/10 ml water (PED); 1 g extract 3 ×/day (SKY); StX (50–100 mg ruscogenin)/day) (SKY).
ruta graveolens
alkaloids, coumarins, furocoumarins
Class 1 (AHP), U.S. regulations prohibit food use at levels of 2 ppm. Class 2b, 2d. Contraindicated in poor kidney function; avoid excess sunlight (AHP). Commission E reports leaf and herb EO is toxic and can produce contact dermatosis. Phototoxic reactions are possible (furocoumarins) (AEH). Though loaded with antispasmodic compounds, rue is also a poisonous plant, both internally and externally. “The plant should not be ingested, especially by pregnant women” (LRNP-July 1989). Having seen it applied cosmetically, and consumed internally in Peru, where I have visited regularly for a decade, I find the APA entry even more alarming. The volatile oil “can cause severe stomach pain, vomiting, convulsive twitching, life-threatening miscarriage, and other serious complications, including fatal ones, if taken in large doses” (APA, citing LAF). Solvent extracts of rue have antifertility effects in rats when added to diet, even up to 10 days after coitus (TAD). With more than 40 alkaloids and 40 coumarins, this chemistry set might defy standardization concepts. LD50 EO = 2540 orl mus (HH2), LD50 EO = >5000 orl rat (HH2).
Should not be used (APA); 0–1.5 g herb as emmenagogue (MAD); 0.5–1 g herb, several ×/day (PH2); 1–2 tsp herb/cup water 1–3 ×/day (RFW); 1–2 g dried herb (PNC); herb juice applied directly in earache and toothache (PH2), not me; 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 2–6 drops EO (HH2).
saccharomyces cerevisiae
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Overdoses may cause allergy (exanthema, itch, Quinck’s disease, urticaria), gas, and in susceptible people, migraine (PH2). May be hypertensive if administered simultaneously with MAO-Inhibitors.
6 g/day (PH2).
Class 2b, 2d. Contraindicated in patients with hemorrhagic disease or peptic ulcers. Notice: abortifacient, emmenagogue, and uterostimulant. May prolong blood coagulation time (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Not covered by Commission E.
1 g flower in tea to 3 ×/day (HHB); 1–2 tsp fresh flower (PED); 2–3 g dry flower (PED); 3 g dry flower:15 ml alcohol/15 ml water (PED).
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Here’s the broken record (template) played by CAN: In view of the lack of phytochemical, pharmacological, and toxicity data, use during pregnancy and lactation should be avoided. Excessive use should be avoided (CAN). We could say that about any herb that has not been studied extensively. Few pharmaceuticals have been proven for pregnant and lactating women, and for pediatric dosages. Should we ask more of the long-used herbs?
2–6 g dry tops as tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–6 ml liquid top extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–8 ml top tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–3 tsp (2.8–4.2 g) herb in cold tea (MAD); 30–50 drops tincture (MAD).
salix alba
Salicylates, tannins, salicin, saligenin, salicylic acid
Class 1 (AHP). Salicylates and tannins (AHP). For oral use of bark Commission E reports contraindications, adverse effects, and interactions: on theoretical grounds, similar to those of the salicylates (AEH) (all plants contain salicylates). In view of the lack of toxicological data, excessive use, especially during lactation and pregnancy, should be avoided. Individuals with aspirin hypersensitivity, asthma, diabetes, gastrosis, gout, hemophilia, hepatosis, hypothrombinemia, nephrosis, and peptic ulcers should be cautious with salicylates. Alcohol, barbiturates, and oral sedatives may potentiate salicylate toxicity. Beware of salicylate interaction with oral anticoagulants, methotrexate, metoclopramide, phenytoin, pronebecid, spironolactone, and valproate. Salicylates excreted in breast milk reportedly can cause macular rashes in breast-fed babies. Salicylate toxicity may cause dermatosis, gastrosis, hematochezia, nausea, nephrosis, tinnitus, and vomiting (CAN). Excessive use of the tannin-rich bark may cause diarrhea and nausea (SKY). Still, “willow is much safer than aspirin” (SKY). Not for use during viral infections, because of [remote theoretical, JAD] possibility of Reye’s Syndrome (WAM). The prodrug, salicin, which does not irritate the stomach, is metabolized to saligenin in the GI tract and salicylic acid after absorption. “Products containing willow should preferably be standardized on their salicin content...” (CAN). “The analgesic actions of willow are typically slow-acting, but last longer than standard aspirin products” (SKY).
2–3 g bark in cold water, bring to boil, steep 5 minutes (PH2); 1–2 g bark (20–40 mg salicin); 2–4 tbsp fresh bark (PED); 1–2 tsp powdered bark 1–3 ×/day (APA); 3–6 g dry bark (PED); 1–3 g dry bark, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 4.5 g dry bark:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 1–2 ml bark tincture (25% alcohol) 3 ×/day (APA; SKY); 1–3 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 20–40 mg salicin (APA); 60–120 mg salicin/day (KOM; PIP); 2–3 (380 mg) capsules every 3 hours (JAD); 2–3 (379 mg) capsules as needed, or every 3 hours, up to 18 capsules (APA).
salix discolor
salicylic acid
See Salix alba (White Willow). Probably enough salicylic acid in the plant to impart the activities and indications of salicylates.
Alkaloids curaroid, Quarternary beta-carboline alkaloids, genistein
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Nontoxic in acute toxicity studies (MPI). Alkaloids curaroid (MPI). Quarternary beta-carboline alkaloids anticholinesterase, 1/6th as potent as physostigmine, more potent than tertiary beta-carbolines (MPI). Perhaps their synergies may make up for low quantitation of genistein itself.
salvia divinorum
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). Narcotic hallucinogen (CRC).
salvia miltiorrhiza
diterpene tanshinones, 15,16-dihydrotanshinone
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (KOM). Tinctures may cause pruritus, reduced appetite, or stomachache (AHP). Dan Shen increases prothrombin time after warfarin; dangerous to take with coumadin (J. Emerg. Med. 18(1):22). Scarcely toxic (LAF).
3–5 g crude herb (AKT); 3–15 g root in tea (HH2); 6–15 g dry root/day (APA); 5–15(-30) g root/day (FAY); extract of 60 g crude root/day 2–4 weeks to 9 months (FAY); 2–6 g dry root/day or 4–12 ml fluid extract (1:2) (KEB).
salvia officinalis
oleanolic acid, flavonoid extract, thujone, camphor, volatile oil
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Sage) — Class 2b, 2d. Not for long-term use. Do not exceed recommended dose. Alcoholic extracts contraindicated in pregnancy (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports for oral use of leaf, contraindications: pregnancy (EO/alcoholic extracts); adverse effects: prolonged use of EO/alcoholic extracts may produce epileptiform cramps. Other sources report leaf, as herbal tea, should not be used for prolonged period (AEH). “Contraindicated in pregnancy. May interfere with anticonvulsant and hypoglycemic therapies; may potentiate or synergize other sedatives. Human poisoning has followed ingestion of the convulsant EO for acne. In rats, sage oil is subclinically, clinically, and lethally convulsant at 300, 500, and 3200 mg/kg, respectively (CAN). CAN cautions that thujone and camphor in the volatile oil can be convulsant and toxic (CAN). LD50 (EO) = 2600 orl rat, LD50 (EO) = 5000 ind rbt (CAN). Taking more than 15 g or prolonged overuse can lead to thujone-induced convulsions, dizziness, hot flashes, and tachycardia (BIS). No more than 1 cup tea/day during pregnancy, max, for no more than 1 week (WAM).
4–6 g/day (AHP); 4–6 g herb (KOM; PH2); 2 tsp (3 g) cut herb/cup water (APA); 1–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 1–4 g leaf, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–3 tsp (3.4–5.1 g) leaf in hot tea (MAD); boil 100 g leaf/liter wine 2 minutes (f; PH2); 2–4 tbsp fresh leaf (PED); 3–6 g dry leaf (PED); 4.5 g dry leaf/2 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 1–4 ml liquid leaf extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.1–0.3 g EO (KOM; PH2).
salvia sclarea
Class 1 (AHP). Not covered (KOM; PHR; PH2). LD50 EO = >5000–5600 mg/kg orl rat (HH2); LD50 EO = >520–550 mg/kg ipr mouse (HH2); LD50 EO = 740 mg/kg ipr rat (HH2); 2000–>5000 mg/kg dml dog (HH2).
Food farmacy? To be eaten for cancer (JLH).
sambucus canadensis
sambucus canadensis l.
Class 1 (AHP). Parts of the plant may contain dangerous levels of HCN. Several cases of severe poisoning from several glasses of juice involved dizziness, nausea, numbness, stupor, vomiting, and weakness (LRNP, July 1992). Seeds somewhat toxic (WAM). Eat raw berries sparingly, or cook to reduce HCN content (WAM). Don’t eat red elderberries (WAM).
2–10 g dry fruit; 2–3 (485 mg) capsules 2–3 ×/day; 1 (485 mg) StX capsule 3 ×/day; 10–15 g flower (PIP); 2–4 g dry flower PNC.
sambucus ebulus
Saponin, Aqueous extracts
Contraindications, Indications, and Side Effects (Dwarf Elder) — Not covered (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not recorded for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Symptoms of poisoning: bloody diarrhea, coma, cyanosis, dizziness, headache, hematchezia, mydriasis, nausea, oral pain, or vomiting (HHB; MAD; PH2). “Cases of death are also mentioned” (PH2).
2.5 g root/cup water (HHB).
sambucus nigra
Class 1 (AHP). None reported (KOM; PIP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Raw unripe fruits and other parts contain the cyanogenic sambunigrin, which in excess, can cause diarrhea and/or vomiting. Excessive use of diuretics may result in hypokalemia. If antineuraminidase E activity of berry extracts can be confirmed, this might be viewed as a potential competitor for the new 1999 drug Relenza™. The berry extracts have long been recommended for flu.
2 tsp flowers/cup water several ×/day (APA); 2–4 g dry flower (PNC); 2–5 g dry flower as tea 3 ×/day (CAN; SKY); 2–4 ml liquid flower extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 5–15 g fluid (KOM; MAD); 1.5–3 g fluid extract (KOM); 2.5–7.5 g tincture (KOM); 2–10 ml liquid extract 1–2 ×/day (PNC; SKY).
sambucus racemosa
sambucus racemosa subsp. pubens
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Probably has same symptoms as reported from overdoses of S. ebulus. Symptoms with S. ebulus include bloody diarrhea, coma, cyanosis, dizziness, headache, hematochezia, mydriasis, nausea, oral pain, and vomiting (HHB; MAD; PH2).
Dosage not seen. Probably comparable to other species, except fruit often considered poisonous.
Class 2d (AHP).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Can be allergenic topically (SKY). Commission E reports herb contains irritating triterpene saponins (AEH). EO should be used in an enteric coated form (KOM). Contraindicated in diseases of the parenchyma of the kidney (as probably would be all EOs). Side effects include dermatosis, GI distress, hematuria, nausea, and skin itch (KOM; PHR). No drug interactions known (KOM). Do not use more than 6 weeks without consulting a physician (KOM).
3–6 g powdered wood (KAP); 10–20 g wood (KOM; PH2); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PNC); 1–1.5 g EO (KOM; PH2); 5–25 minims wood oil (KAP); 6–12 drops (300–600 mg) wood oil several ×/day (MAD); 0.3–1 ml wood oil (PNC); dilute oil applied topically (SKY).
sanguinaria canadensis
sanguinarine
Class 2b. May cause nausea and vomiting. Powerful emesis may result from doses as low as 1 g (AHP) (0.03 g; i.e., 30 mg) (PHR). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). PH2 does state that overdoses can cause colic, diarrhea enterosis, vomiting, and possible collapse (PH2). And CAN are sanguine about sanguinarine, no side effects or toxicity documented for bloodroot. Carcinogenic potential of sanguinarine
0.06–0.5 (–2 g for emesis) g rhizome 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.06–0.3 ml (–2 ml for emesis) liquid extract (1:1 in 60% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.3–2 ml (–8 ml for emesis) tincture (1:5 in 60% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5 g powdered root (PNC); 0.5–1.5 ml liquid root extract (PNC); 2–8 ml root tincture (PNC); 0.3–0.5 g solid root extract (PNC).
sanguinaria canadensis l.
sanguisorba officinalis l.
sanicula europaea l.
Class 1 (AHP). None known (KOM).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
4–6 g dry shoot/day (HH2; KOM; PH2); 2–4 ml liquid shoot extract (PNC).
santalum album
santolina chamaecyparissus
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Medicinal use “has generally ceased” (PH2).
saponaria officinalis
Not covered (AHP). Rare stomach irritation (KOM). Large doses may be poisonous (FAD). Saponins are hemolytic (FAD; FNF). May irritate mucus membranes and skin (PHR). May induce emesis and diarrhea (APA).
1.5 g root/day (KOM); 1 tsp root in cold tea (MAD); 0.4–1.5 g (1/8 to 1/3 tsp) bark/day (APA); 0.4 g/cup bark tea (PHR); 2–4 fl oz bark extract (FEL); 1–2 g bark extract (MAD).
saraca indica
1–3 g powdered bark (KAP); 28–112 ml bark decoction (KAP).
sarcostemma acidum (roxb.) voigt
sarracenia purpurea
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). If it really contains coniine as stated by the Physician’s Desk Reference (PHR; PH2), it should be avoided. PNC specifies that coniine occurs in Sarracenia flava, not S. purpurea.
0.5–2 g powdered root (PNC); 2.5–5 ml liquid extract (PNC).
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Can cause nausea and kidney damage (SKY). Avoid large doses for long periods (SKY). Unapproved by Commission E (KOM). Steroids used for arthrosis, dysmenorrhea, menopause, and PMS. Commission E reports for the root that gastric and renal toxicity, as well as drug interactions, are possible (with bismuth, digitalis, glycosides, and hypnotics) (AHP). Overdosage could lead to European cholera, shock, and worsened diuresis, among other things (PHR). Blumenthal editorially questions the Commission E claim for gastric irritation due to saponin content (KOM). Commission E reminds us of another problem, saponins can increase the availability of simultaneously administered drugs, while hastening the elimination of other drugs (e.g., hypnotics). In view of the lack of toxicological data, excessive use should be avoided. There are no known problems with the use of sarsaparilla during pregnancy and lactation. Sarsaparilla saponins have been used in the partial synthesis of cortisone and other steroids (CAN).
1–4 g dry rhizome, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–4 g powdered root (PNC); 1–2 tsp powdered root/cup water up to 3 ×/day (APA); 0.3–1.5 g root (HH2; PH2); 3 ml root 3 ×/day (SKY); 6 tsp (20 g) root in cold tea (MAD); 3 cups root tea/day (PH2); 2–4 tbsp fresh root (PED); 3–6 g dry root (PED); 4.5 g dry root:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 0.25–0.5 tsp root tincture up to 3 ×/day (APA); 8–30 ml concentrated root decoction (PNC); 8–15 ml liquid root extract (PNC); 8–15 ml liquid rhizome extract (1:1 in 10% glycerol, 20% alcohol) (CAN); 2 (450 mg) capsules 2–3 ×/day (NH). I’d feel safe with 10–30 g dry root in 3 cups tea or sarsaparilla/day (JAD).
sassafras albidum
EO, safrole
Class 2d. Not for long-term use. Do not exceed recommended dose (10 g root bark; 2–4 ml liquid extract thereof) (AHP). Sassafras wood contains 1–2% EO, consisting of about 80% of the toxic and hepatocarcinogenic compound safrole; prolonged use is generally discouraged. CAN reports that safrole in the volatile oil is carcinogenic and genotoxic. Because of abortifacient activity of the oil and hepatotoxicity of safrole, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Even safrole-free extracts have reportedly caused tumors. Major symptoms of toxicity include ataxia, depression, and diarrhea, followed by death within 4 hours to 7 days. Rats with safrole in their diet at levels of 0.25% to 1% exhibit biliary proliferation, growth retardation, liver necrosis, primary hepatomas, stomach atrophy, and testicular atrophy. “Sassafras should not be used, internally or externally” (CAN). High doses may cause spasm followed by paralysis.
Should not be used (APA; CAN; PH2); 2–4 g root bark, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1 tsp (3 g) root bark/cup water (PH2); 2–4 ml liquid root bark extract (PNC); 2–4 ml liquid root bark extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 5 g tincture (PH2).
satureja sp.
ursolic acid
Class 1 (AHP). Applied undiluted to backs of hairless mice, summer savory oil was lethal to half the animals in 48 hours (LAF). LD50 = 1370 orl rat (HH3). An important source of the COX-2 inhibitor, ursolic acid (COX).
1.5 g in tea (HH3); 3 tsp dry herb/day (PHR); (1–2 pediatric)-4 tsp herb/cup water 1–3 ×/day (APA); 0.5–1 tsp tincture 1–3 ×/day (APA).
saussurea costus
Class 1 (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). EO LD50 = 2660–4350 mg/kg orl rat (HH2).
beta-sitosterol, DHT, 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor, 3-ketosteroid-reductase inhibitor, histamine inhibitor, high molecular weight polysaccharide, immunostimulating polysaccharide rich in glucuronic acid, fatty acids, sterols
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports no contraindications or interactions for the fruit. Adverse effects: gastric complaints (rarely). As improvement is symptomatic without eliminating prostatic hypertrophy, a physician should be consulted regularly (AEH). May interact with the contraceptive pill, other hormonal therapies, and HRT. “Use during pregnancy and lactation should be avoided” (CAN). 34 of 435 patients completing a 3-year study reported 46 adverse effects, and a dropout rate of 1.8% due to adverse effects. “There are no known contraindications to saw palmetto preparations” (SHT). May interfere with PSA readings after 6 months’ treatment (JAD). If prevention of the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) is responsible for impotence as a side effect of finasteride, then this could be a concern with equivalent doses of saw palmetto.
2–3 tsp fresh fruit (PED); 0.5–1 (2) g powdered dry fruit (PNC; SKY); 1–1.5 g dry fruit (PED); 1–2 g dry fruit (APA; PH2); 0.5–2.0 g dry fruit, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN; SKY); 1.5 g dry fruit:8 ml alcohol/7 ml water (PED); 1–60 drops fluid fruit extract (FEL); 0.6–1.5 ml liquid BPC fruit extract (CAN; PNC); 2–4 ml/day liquid fruit extract (1:2) (45–90%) (MAB); 5–6 ml liquid whole herb extract (SKY); 320 mg/day lipophilic extract (PH2); 160 mg liposterolic extract 2 ×/day (ca. = 2–4 g/day dry fruit) (MAB); 320 mg alcohol or hexane extract StX at 90% fatty acids/sterols (APA); 1 (320 mg) capsule (StX with 160 mg certified potency fruit extract with at least 85–95% fatty acids and biologically active sterols in a base of pumpkin seed oil) 2 ×/day (NH); 1 (320 mg) soft gel StX/day; 2–3 (600 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (JAD; NH).
schinus molle
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (California Peppertree) — Class 1; GI irritant; though toxic in quantity, still used as spice (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Children intoxicated by fruits, with diarrhea, gastroenterosis, headache, lassitude, and nausea (CRC). LD50 (EO) = >5000 mg/kg orl rat (HH2).
For gargles and external washes 30 g drug/500 ml water.
schinus terebinthifolius
Class 1, as “pink pepper.” GI irritant (AHP). Though toxic in quantity, sold as a spice (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Alkyl phenols may be irritant (PH2). May cause diarrhea, hemorrhoids, and nausea in humans (CRC). May intoxicate birds, fish, and horses (CRC).
“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
schisandra chinensis
Lignans, Gomisin A, Schisanhenol, Schisandrin B
Class 1. Rarely, appetite suppression, dyspepsia, and itch are attendant (AHP; LAF). Leaves and fruits are considered food in the Orient (FAC). Contraindicated in pregnancy except to facilitate childbirth (KEB).
3–9 g powdered herb (AKT); 250–500 mg fruit 1–2 ×/day (APA); 1.5–6 g fruit (LAF); 1.5–15 g fruit (FAY); 5 g crushed fruit/100 ml water, divided into 3
schisandra sphenanthera
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
schoenocaulon officinale
N/A
N/A
sclerocarya birrea
sclerocarya birrea (a. rich.) hochst. subsp. caffra (sond.) kokwaro
scoparia dulcis
amellin
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). According to old sources, amellin apparently does not cause blood sugar to drop below normal; reduction of both blood sugar and urine sugar occurs gradually. Amellin reportedly raises lowered alkali reserves in diabetics and reduces iron content of serum and of blood acetone bodies. Amellin prevents tissue wastage and promotes better utilization of dietary protein. Fat in adipose tissue is reduced by amellin administration. Amellin promotes healing (WOI). I do not find amellin on PubMed. Dry plants do not exhibit the antidiabetic properties (JFM; WOI) of the fresh plant juice. Eli Lily tests showed no antidiabetic properties (JFM). Perhaps the fresh juice should be analyzed anew.
Handful of plant boiled in 1 liter of water for 15 minutes for refreshment; 2–4 handfuls for bathing deformed babies.
scopolia carniolica
Class 3 (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports contraindications, adverse effects, and interactions of belladonna alkaloids (AEH). Contraindications: megacolon, narrow-angle glaucoma, prostate adenoma with residual urine, stenosis of the GI tract, and tachy- cardia (KOM); interactions: may increase activity of amantadine, quinidine, and tricyclic antide- pressants (KOM); side effects: arrhythmia, difficult urination, disturbance of ocular accommodation, dry mouth, hyperthermia, mydriasis, obstipation, reduced perspiration, and tachycardia (KOM; PHR; PH2). High doses can cause compulsive speech, delirium, excitation, hallucinations, manic episodes, followed by exhaustion and sleep. “Lethal dosages include the danger of asphyxiation (for adults starting at 100 mg atropine, depending upon alkaloid content, between 20 to 50 gm of the drug, considerably less for children)” (PHR).
6–120 mg root (HHB); equivalent to 0.25 (average) 3 (maximum) mg total alkaloids, calculated as hyoscyamine/day (KOM).
scrophularia nodosa
Class 2d. Contraindicated in ventricular tachycardia (AHP; CAN).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2)
1 tsp (2.8 g) root in hot tea (MAD); 2–8 g herb as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–8 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) (CAN); 4–8 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 2–4 ml herb tincture (1:10 in 45% ethanol) (CAN).
scutellaria baicalensis
baicalein, baicalin
Class 1 (AHP). Rating 4 (APA). Not indexed by Commission E (KOM); may be additive with other anticoagulants, like warfarin. Extracts (Baical Skullcap) — Decoction LD50 >10,000 mg/kg orl rabbit; LD50 baicalin 3081 mg/kg ivn mouse. Decoction sedative at 10,000 mg/kg orally in rabbits; tincture sedative at 2000 mg/kg intravenously in rabbits (LAF). My only quantified sources of the COX-2 inhibitor, baicalein (COX).
3–10 g/day (AKT); 3–9 g root/day (FAY); 2–6 g dry root/day or 4–12 ml fluid extract (1:2) (KEB).
scutellaria lateriflora
Class 1 (AHP). APA rating = 4 (APA). No contraindications known (WAM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Reports of hepatotoxicity may be due to adulteration with germander, a black eye in itself (AHP). “There is no evidence to indicate that Scutellaria is toxic when ingested at normal doses” (AHP). The FDA has suggested that overdose of the tincture causes confusion, convulsions, giddiness, pulsar irregularities, and twitching (LRNP, January 1993). The USP, in its proposed monograph of valerian, note that preparations containing skullcap “caused hepatosis” (the preparation, not necessarily the valerian). Reported fatality in Norway possibly Scutellaria, or possibly Teucrium, a frequent adulterant. CAN cautions that a mixed product (adulteration with Teucrium spp.) caused hepatotoxicity. Because of traditional use to eliminate afterbirth and promote menstruation, and potential hepatotoxicity, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN).
1–2 g herb (PNC); 0.5 oz herb/pint water (CEB); 2–4 tbsp fresh herb (PED); 1–2 tsp dry herb/cup to 3 ×/day (APA; SKY); 1–2 g dry herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN; SKY); 3–6 g dry herb (PED); 4.5 g dry herb/22 ml alcohol/22 ml water (PED); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 ml herb tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml herb tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 1–2 droppers herb tincture (APA); 2–3 (429 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (APA).
secale cereale
No contraindications were reported. Rare GI and dermatitic side effects were reported. Varro Tyler cautioned against self-medication of BPH. Whenever treating BPH a practitioner should be involved. Base-line levels of PSA should be established before considering an herbal treatment (JAD).
80–120 mg pollen StX/day (SHT).
sechium edule
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Peeling the fruit may cause inflammation or even numbness if a number are peeled. Leaf extracts exert transient depressor effect when injected in laboratory animals.
Boil 3 leaves with 5 of Casimiroa for high blood pressure (JFM).
sedum acre l.
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Not to be used in cases of GI or urinary inflammation (PH2). LD50 of alkaloid mix 50 mg/kg ipr mus (HH2).
1 g powdered herb/day (MAD); 3 g/day (PH2); 1 tsp/cup water (PH2).
selenicereus grandiflorus
Cactine
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). The fresh juice can irritate the GI tract (CAN). Cactine may possibly have cardiotonic effects (PNC).
0.6 ml fluid extract to 10 ×/day; 0.12 to 2 ml 2–3 ×/day (HH2; PHR; PH2); 10 drops tincture (1:10) in sweet water 3–5 ×/day (HH2; PHR).
sempervivum tectorum
Not covered (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1 cup infusion every 3 hours (PH2); steep 15 g in 1 liter water for 10 minutes for topical and gargle (PH2); use expressed juice as eardrop (PH2).
senecio aureus
Not covered (AHP). Contains toxic PAs (FAD). Should not be taken internally (PHR; PH2). Contains PAs in considerable amounts and varieties, which can be genotoxic, carcinogenic, hepatotoxic (CAN), and mutagenic. Animal studies document placental transfer and secretion into breast milk of unsaturated PAs (CAN). Due to PAs, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. “Liferoot should not be ingested” (CAN). Use of Senecio species can result in potentially fatal hepatic veno-occlusive disease in man, with symptoms of abdominal pain and vomiting with ascites. PAs are toxic to man, with liver damage with cirrhosis and ascites, or seneciosis, or VOD reported in almost all cases of severe or fatal intoxications, from intakes of 0.5–3.3 mg/kg (AEH).
Do not take it (APA); 1–4 g herb 3 ×/day (HH2); 2–4 g dry herb or root (APA; PNC); 2–4 ml herb and/or root liquid extract (APA; PNC); 4 g herb and/or root liquid extract 3–4 ×/day (HHB; PHR); 4 fluid oz herb and/or root decoction 3–4 ×/day (FEL); 14 g (sic, may be a typo) herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 14 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
senecio aureus l.
senecio cineraria
pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs)
Not covered (AHP). Contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) in considerable amounts and varieties, which can be carcinogenic, hepatotoxic, and mutagenic. PAs are toxic to humans. Use of Senecio species can result in potentially fatal hepatic veno-occlusive disease in humans, with symptoms of abdominal pain and vomiting with ascites, or seneciosis (VOD), reported in almost all cases of severe or fatal intoxications, from intakes of 0.5 mg/kg to 3.3 mg/kg (AEH1).
Don’t take it (JAD, PH2).
senecio jacobaea
pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), mixed alkaloids
Madaus rightly or wrongly says that S. jacobaea L. and S. vulgaris L. have the same effects. Activities include Carcinogenic (1; AEH; PH2), Hepatotoxic (1; AEH; PH2), and Poison (1; PH2). | Not covered (AHP). Use of Senecio species can result in potentially fatal hepatic veno-occlusive disease (VOD) in humans, with symptoms of abdominal pain and vomiting with ascites. Contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) in considerable amounts and varieties, which can be carcinogenic, hepatotoxic, and mutagenic. PAs are toxic to humans, with liver damage with cirrhosis and ascites, or seneciosis, or VOD reported in almost all cases of severe or fatal intoxications, from intakes of 0.5 mg/kg to 3.3 mg/kg (AEH1). LD50 (mixed alkaloids) = 140 mg/kg orl rat (HH2).
Do not take it (JAD); 1 part herb:5 ethanol (10%) fruit topical application (HH2; PH2); 2 g herb tincture several ×/day up to 15 g (MAD); 1–3 g fluid herb extract (MAD); 40–60 g herb juice (MAD).
senecio nemorensis
pyrrolizidine alkaloids
Not covered (AHP). Contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) in considerable amounts and varieties, which can be carcinogenic, hepatotoxic, and mutagenic. Use of Senecio species can result in potentially fatal hepatic veno-occlusive disease in humans, with symptoms of abdominal pain and vomiting with ascites. PAs are toxic to humans, with liver damage with cirrhosis and ascites, or seneciosis (VOD) reported in almost all cases of severe or fatal intoxications, from intakes of 0.5 mg/kg to 3.3 mg/kg (AEH).
Do not take (JAD). Steep 1 tsp 5–10 minutes in cup hot water; take several times a day as needed (PH2). (Still, PH2 says it should not be taken internally.)
senecio vulgaris
pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs)
Not covered (AHP). Contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) in considerable amounts and varieties, which can be carcinogenic, hepatotoxic, and mutagenic. Use of Senecio species can result in potentially fatal hepatic veno-occlusive disease in humans, with symptoms of abdominal pain and vomiting with ascites. PAs are toxic to humans, with liver damage with cirrhosis and ascites, or seneciosis, or veno-occlusive disease reported in almost all cases of severe or fatal intoxications, from intakes of 0.5 mg/kg to 3.3 mg/kg (AEH1). Horses grazing the plant develop anorexia, ascites, edema, encephalopathy with gait anomalies, and jaundice (BRU). LD50 (mixed alkaloids) = 140 mg/kg orl rat (HH2).
Do not take it (JAD); 2 g tincture several ×/day, up to 15 g (MAD); 1–3 fl extract (MAD); 40–60 g juice (MAD).
Polygalic acid, senegin, saponins, antiinflammatory triterpenic acid
Class 2b. Emmenagogue and uterotonic. Contraindicated in gastric ulcers and gastrosis; not for long-term use (AHP). Commission E reports root permitted for oral use. No contraindications, adverse effects, or interactions, except for GI irritation from continued or prolonged use (AEH; KOM). The Herbal HDR cautions that overdosage leads to diarrhea, gastric complaints, nausea, and queasiness (PHR). CAN cautions that saponins can irritate GI tract. Polygalic acid and senegin irritate the GI mucosa and may cause a reflex secretion of mucus in the bronchioles. Large doses may cause purging and vomiting (CAN). Extracts: One antiinflammatory triterpenic acid is useful for eczema, graft rejection, multiple sclerosis, and psoriasis, according to a French patent mentioned by CAN. Looking at that suggests, to me, that the acid has immunosuppressant activity, which would be contraindicated in most diseases. Saponins can be hemolytic and a GI irritant (CAN). Hemolytic saponins are toxic when injected iv, but have low toxicity when given orally since they don’t cross GI mucosa (CAN). Free saponins in GI tract may react with mucosa, causing an increased permeability of small intestine to intraluminal solutes and inhibiting active nutrient absorption. This activity may facilitate entry of antigens and active food peptides into the blood circulation with adverse (and I also suppose good) side effects (CAN).
Root 3 ×/day (AHP; KOM); 0.5–2 g root, several ×/day (MAD); 1.5–3 g root (PIP); 0.5 g (ca. 1/5 tsp) root/cup tea/day, not to exceed 3 g/day (APA); 0.5 g root/cup (HHB); 0.5–1.0 g dry root, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5–1 g powdered root (PNC); 2.5–5 ml concentrated root tea (PNC); 0.3–1 ml liquid root extract (CAN; PNC); 1.5–3 g fluid root extract (KOM; PIP); 2.5–7.5 g root tincture (KOM; PIP); 2.5–5 ml root tincture (CAN; PNC).
senna alata
senna alexandrina
hydroxyanthracene derivatives, sennoside B, sennosides, anthranoid laxatives, anthraquinones, sennosides A, sennosides B, rhein-8-glycoside
Class 2b, 2c, 2d (AHP). Commission E and other sources report interaction of anthranoid laxatives (AEH). Anthranoid-containing laxatives can be habit-forming. Some contain compounds suspected of being cytotoxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, and even tumorigenic. Epidemiological studies in Germany reveal that abusers of anthranoid laxatives have three times higher rate of colon carcinoma. One woman developed clubbing of her digits and hypertropic osteoarthropathy
0.5–2 g (0.5–1 tsp)/cup water (APA); 1–2 g fruit (WHO); 3–6 alexandrian or 4–12 tinnevelly pods steeped in 150 ml warm water 6–12 hours (CAN); 0.5–2 g dry leaflets (CAN); 1–2 g dry leaf (PED; WHO); 1 g dry leaf:5 ml alcohol/5 ml water (PED); 0.5–2 ml liquid leaf extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) (CAN); 20–30 mg hydroxyanthracene derivatives/day calculated as sennoside B (KOM); 2 (25 mg) StX extracts 1–2 ×/day (APA); 10–60 mg sennosides (SKY).
senna occidentalis
senna tora
serenoa repens
sesamum indicum
Torachrysone, toralactone, aloe-emodin, rhein, emodin, Alaternin, nor-rubrofusarin-6-beta-D-glucoside, cassiaside, rubrofusarin-6-D-gentiobioside, Chrysophanol, chryso-obtusin, aurantio-obtusin, rubro-fusarin-gentiobioside
Class 2b, 2c, 2d (AHP). Commission E and other sources report interaction of anthranoid laxatives (AEH). Anthranoid-containing laxatives can be habit-forming. Some contain compounds suspected of being cytotoxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, and even tumorigenic. Epidemiological studies in Germany reveal that abusers of anthranoid laxatives have a three times higher rate of colon carcinoma.
1–3 g powdered seed (KAP); 5–15 ml seed tea (KAP).
sida cordifolia
vasicinone, L-ephedrine, Beta-phenylethylamine
1–3 g powder (KAP); 2–20 ml root tea (KAP).
sida rhombifolia
silphium perfoliatum
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
20 grains powdered root (FEL).
silybum marianum
simarouba amara
simarouba amara aubl.
Quassinoids
“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Drug is emetic in high doses (PHR). Quassinoids are amebicidal and antimalarial in vivo in animals and in vitro (PNC).
2–4 ml liquid bark extract (PNC) = 1 g bark/day (PHR; PH2).
simarouba glauca
Mix 30 g powdered leaf with 65 ml coconut oil, gives enough for 10-day treatment (TRA); handful of bark in 3 cups water boiled 10 minutes as tea or bath (AAB); 15–60 drops 3 ×/day alcoholic tincture (steeped 15 days) for ameba.
simmondsia chinensis
Not covered (AHP). None known at proper dose (PHR). Wax is unsuitable for internal use (PH2).“Hazards and/or side effects not
Topical.
sinapis alba
Class 2d (AHP). Ingestion of large quantities can cause irritant poisoning. Commission E reports seed permitted for external use only. Contraindications: children younger than 6 years and those with renal disease (mustard oil is absorbed through the skin). Even an external poultice should be limited to 5–10 minutes pediatrically, 10–15 minutes for adults, less for sensitive patients (KOM). Plaster for 15–30 minutes can cause severe burns (AHP). Adverse effects: skin and nervous damage (prolonged use). Should not be used for more than 2 weeks (AEH). Contraindicated in GI ulcers and nephrosis (PHR). Overdoses cause GI distress (PHR). Long-term dosing may cause nerve damage (PH2). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (and PH2 suggests as much as 240 g dry seed to clear the voice (PH2). Hyperthyroidism with goiter traced “to the use of the isothiocyanates in mustard” (APA). Delaneyite nitpickologists will doubtless clamber to put the same goitrogenic warning on all members of the mustard family, as well as papaya, caper, and nasturtium.
4 tbsp seed flour in water for compress or poultice (KOM); 20–30 g powdered seed flour/liter water for foot bath; 150 g seed flour in a pouch with bath water for mustard bath (PHR); 60 to 240 g powdered seed “to brighten and clear the voice” (PH2).
sisymbrium officinale
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Cardiac (digitalic) effects possible, arrhythmia, diarrhea, headache, nausea, queasiness, and vomiting (PH2).
Steep 40–60 g dry leaf/liter water overnight, drink 4–5 cups next day with honey (CEB); take juice of fresh plant with honey and milk (CEB); 5–30 grains powdered seed (FEL); 0.5–1 g plant in tea 3–4 ×/day (HH2; PH2).
sium sisarum
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (not given) (PH2). The danger comes from confusing this with poisonous umbellifers (JAD).
Class 2d. Oxalates may irritate GI and oral tract. Fresh roots irritate mucosa. Kidney stone sufferers should use with caution, if at all (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PHR; PH2). Overdose may cause queasiness and vomiting (PHR; PH2). CAN cautions against itch and inflammation. Because it is reputed to affect the menstrual cycle, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). Eating leaves can cause burning and inflammation. Roots are believed to be toxic (FAD). Leaf extract is hemolytic.
0.5–1.0 g powdered root, in honey or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 10–20 grains powdered root (GMH); 0.5–1.0 ml liquid root extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml root tincture (1:10 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). None known (CAN; WAM). While I consider slippery elm safer than coffee, LRNP (March 1991) says, “preparations of slippery elm had been used as abortifacients.” Perhaps they refer to Foster and Duke, who note slivers of bark being used mechanically to induce an abortion, sort of the herbal coat hanger. Oleoresins from several elm species can cause dermatosis. Pollen is allergenic (CRC; LRNP, March 1991). But even conservative CAN says, “it would appear to be non-toxic.”
1–3 tsp powdered herb/cup water 1–3 ×/day (APA); 1–2 g bark in tea 3–4 ×/day (SKY); 0.25–0.5 cup fresh bark (PED); 2–4 tsp dry bark (PED); 3 tsp dry bark/4 cups boiling water (PED); 0.5–2 g powdered bark/cup 2–3 ×/day; 4 g powdered bark in 500 ml decoction 3 ×/day (CAN); 4–16 ml (1:8) powdered bark decoction 3 ×/day (CAN; HHB); 5 ml liquid bark extract (1:1 in 60% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 5 ml bark tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 2 (340–500 mg) capsules as needed (JAD); 2 (340 mg) capsules as needed (APA).
smilax aristolochiifolia
Steroid-precursor starter material for progesterone, testosterone, and other steroids
solanum dulcamara
Solasodine
AHP doesn’t index any Solanum species. “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Contraindicated in pregnant and nursing mothers (PH2). Will cause convulsions, paralysis, vertigo, vomiting, and weakened heart (FAD). One source reports excessive use of stalk preparations has been associated with serious poisoning (AEH). With low alkaloid content, stem preparations at doses below 25 g should not be toxic. In children, 10 green berries can cause diarrhea, dilated pupils, nausea, and vomiting. Lethal dosage is estimated to be 200 berries (PHR). Solasodine has a cortisone-like effect (PH2).
1–3 g stem/day (KOM); 0.5–2 g powdered stem several ×/day (MAD); 0.6–1.2 g extract/day (MAD); 1–2 g drug/250 ml water (PH2); 1–3 g/day (PH2).
solanum dulcamara l.
solanum lasiocarpum
Poison (1; USD)
1–2 g powdered plant (KAP); 48–96 ml plant decoction (KAP).
solanum melongena
Seeds may induce constipation or dyspepsia (WOI).
solanum nigrum
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Overdoses can cause enterosis, gastrosis, headache, irritability, queasiness, and vomiting (PH2).
Boil a handful in 1 liter water for 10 min (PH2).
solanum nigrum l.
solanum tuberosum
Solanine
Not covered (AHP). “Fruits” and green skinned potatoes can be toxic, sometimes fatally so (CRC). Solanine is analgesic and antineuralgic; controls itch at oral doses of 50–200 mg (TRA).
solenostemon scutellarioides
“Classed as a narcotic hallucinogen” (CRC).
solidago canadensis
Class 2d (AHP). Caution indicated in patients with chronic kidney disease (AHP; PH2). Irrigation therapy
6–12 g powdered herb (PH2). Also drink at least 2 liters water (PH2).
solidago odora
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Sweet Goldenrod) — Not covered (AHP; PH2). Might share the same contraindications as the other Solidagos. To be avoided by those with chronic nephrosis. May cause allergic reactions (FAD).
1–3 drops EO (FEL); 1–2 fluid oz infusion (FEL).
solidago virgaurea
saponins
Class 2d. Patients with chronic nephropathy should consult a practitioner before taking (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Contraindications for the herb: patients with chronic renal disease should first consult a physician (AEH). None reported for oral consumption; irrigation therapy contraindicated with edema due to reduced cardiac and renal function (PH2; PIP). Mixed saponins antiedemic and antiexudative at 1.25–2.5 mg/kg; saponins spermicidal (HH2).
6–15 g herb (APA); 3–5 g herb/240 ml up to several ×/day (APA); 15–20 g herb (MAD); 6–12 g crude herb (PIP; SHT); 1–2 tsp (3–5 g) per 150 ml hot water, 2–4 ×/day between meals (PH2); 2–4 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC).
sophora secundiflora
Hallucinogen (f; CRC), Insecticide (f; CRC), Intoxicant (f; CRC), Narcotic (f; CRC), Poison (f; CRC), Stimulant (f; CRC)
Not covered (AHP). Seed and flower poisonous, possibly causing convulsions and nausea, death due to respiratory failure (asphyxia). One chewed seed can kill a child (CRC).
sorbus americana
Not covered (AHP; PH2).
sorbus aucuparia
sorbus domestica
sorbus torminalis
sorbitol
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Wild Servicetree) — None reported (PH2).
Dosages (Wild Servicetree) — None reported (PH2).
sorghum bicolor
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Cyanide poisoning can occur in grazing animals overgrazing the foliage, especially wilted foliage (WOI).
Decoct 1 tbsp powdered toasted seed (JFM); decoct 2 oz seed/quart water for cystosis (FEL). Molasses, derived from the seeds, was used with sulfur as a spring tonic in rural Alabama (TOM). I remember my dad and mom talking about it, but don’t know that they ever tonified me therewith.
Class 2d. Caution for people prone to kidney stone.“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PHR; PH2).
Food farmacy, but don’t overdo it (oxalates).
spergularia rubra
spergularia rubra (l.) j. presl & c. presl
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
5 drachms/pint water (FEL).
spigelia anthelmia
spigelia marilandica
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Wormgrass) — Not covered (AHP; APA; KOM). Large quantities of the drug may induce dyspnea, myositis, spasms, and vomiting (PH2). Wormgrass has been used for poisoning humans; the toxic effects are similar to those of strychnine (CRC). Side effects of S. marilandica include increased heart action, vertigo, convulsions, and possibly death (FAD).
Don’t take it (JAD).
spigelia marilandica (l.) l.
Spigeline
Class 2d. Not for long-term use. Do not exceed recommended dose (AHP). Has been used for poisoning humans, the toxic effects similar to those of strychnine. Effects of spigeline are rather like those of coniine, lobeline, and nicotine. “Even proper doses may lead to disturbed vision (dimness), dizziness, muscular spasms, twitching eyelids, dilated pupils, facial spasms, and increased heart activity. In large doses, circulation and respiration are depressed and muscular power diminished; there have been fatalities in children” (CRC; HH2). Side effects include increased heart action, vertigo, convulsions, and possibly death (FAD). Toxic, may paralyze the spinal marrow causing death by asphyxiation (PH2).
Don’t take it (JAD). Adults 2–5 g (children over 4 years old, 0.5–4 g), morning and evening, with strong purgative like senna (AHP); 1–2 drachms dry root (GMH).
spinacia oleracea
Not covered (AHP). Not approved as a medicine (KOM; PHR). Infants should not receive spinach until after their fourth month (danger of methemoglobin formation through nitrites) (PHR). If the levels of oxalic acid reported in DAA and PHR are correct (6–8% in younger leaves, 16% in older leaves, 23–27% in the cotyledons), then those sensitive to oxalic acid might not want to overindulge in spinach. PHR advises not letting the leaves stand, as the nitrates may be converted to nitrites.
Food farmacy.
stachys officinalis
1 oz herb/pint boiling water (GMH); 1–2 g herb/day in 3 doses (PHR); 1–2 tsp fresh herb (PED); 0.5–1 g dry herb (PED); 0.75 g dry herb:4 ml alcohol/4 ml water (PED); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (APA; PNC).
stachys palustris
Not covered (AHP; KOM). None reported (PH2). Root edible (HHB).
stellaria media
Saponins, genistein
Class 1 (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). None reported (SKY). One alleged case of nitrate toxicity (AHP). Which raises a question: If high nitrate/high nitrites are dangerous in combination with Viagra, maybe that plant group once called Centrospermae (which includes, e.g., chickweed, lambs quarter, poke, pigweed, purslane), might also chickweed be contraindicated with Viagra? Alternatively, they might, along with garlic, make a viagroid nitric-oxide-generating mess of greens. Saponins enhance transdermal absorption of other chemicals and may solubilize other medicines internally. I am still trying to confirm European studies that cited genistein in chickweed.
3 (389 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (APA); 1 tsp plant juice 6–8 ×/day (MAD); 2–3 tsp herb in cold or hot tea (MAD); 0.25–0.5 cup fresh herb (PED); 6–12 g dry herb (PED); 9 g dry herb:45 ml alcohol/45 ml water (PED); 1–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 1–5 ml tincture/day (SKY).
stephania tetrandra
sterculia urens
Bulking agents should not be taken by those with stenotic lesions of the GI tract. May lead to bowel obstruction if fluid intake is inadequate. Do not take bulking agents when laying down or at bedtime. Do not use with antiperistaltics (such as, for example, loperamide) (SHT).
stevia rebaudiana
Class 1 (AHP). No health hazards known with proper use as a sweetener (PH2). AMA (Alternative Medicine Alert) suggests that one byproduct of stevia metabolism may be mutagenic (APA); steviol, a metabolite of stevioside “has been found to be highly mutagenic in several in vitro studies” (AMA 3:13). Insufficient human data exist regarding safety in pregnancy and lactation. Hence, “pregnant and lactating patients should avoid stevia” (AMA 3:13). Limited data suggest it may be a contraceptive (APA).
1–2 capsules StX (57 mg extract 85% steviosides) with beverage (NH).
stevia rebaudiana (bertoni) bertoni
stillingia sylvatica
Diterpenes, Diterpene esters
Class 2c. Caustic latex may irritate mucosa (AHP). CAN cautions diterpenes can irritate the GI tract. Not recommended for internal use. Due to irritant diterpenes, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Diterpene esters cause swelling and irritation of the skin and mucous membranes. Some are cocarcinogenic. Overdoses may cause aches, burning of the mouth and throat, cough, depression, dermatosis, diarrhea, dysuria, fatigue, perspiration, nausea, and vomiting (CAN).
1–2 g dry root, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN; HH2); 0.5–2 ml liquid root extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN; HH2); 1–4 ml bark tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
stillingia sylvatica garden ex l.
Unknown ID
Class 1 (AHP). None listed (PH2). In view of the lack of pharmacological and toxicological data, excessive use, especially during lactation and pregnancy, should be avoided (CAN). Overdose can cause colic, nausea, and pain, irritating the mucus lining of the GI tract, sometimes dizziness and strangury (APA).
1–4 g dry root, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–4 ml liquid root extract (PNC); 1–4 ml liquid root extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 30–40 drops 1:2 tincture (fresh whole root) 3–5 ×/day (AKT); 2–8 ml root tincture (1:5 in 40% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–8 ml root tincture (PNC).
strophanthus gardeniiflorus
cymarin, ouabain, k-strophanthoside, g-strophanthidin
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Side effects may include cardiac arrhythmia, headache, ophthalmia (disturbance of color vision), queasiness, stupor, and vomiting. May enhance effects and side effects with calcium salts, glucocorticoids, laxatives, quinidine, and saluretics (PH2). Powdered seeds LDlo 25 mg/kg ivn dog (HH2); g-strophanthidin LDlo 0.33–0.44 mg/kg ivn dog (HH2).
Don’t take except with physician guidance! (JAD); cymarin 0.6–0.9 mg ivn man/day, 2.3–2.5 mg orl man (HDN); ouabain 0.25–0.65 mg ivn man/day, 12–48 mg/day orl man (HDN); toxic dose 143 mg/man, k-strophanthoside 0.2–1.2 mg ivn man/day, to 7.5 mg/day orl man; toxic dose 143 mg/man (HDN).
strophanthus gratus
Cymarin, ouabain, k-strophanthoside, g-strophanthidin
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Side effects may include cardiac arrhythmia, headache, ophthalmia (disturbance of color vision), queasiness, stupor, and vomiting. May enhance effects and side effects with calcium salts, glucocorticoids, laxatives, quinidine, and saluretics (PH2). Powdered seeds LDlo 23–24 mg/kg ivn dog (HH2); g-strophanthidin LDlo 0.33–0.44 mg/kg ivn dog (HH2).
Don’t take it except with physician guidance! (JAD); 0.5–1.5 g tincture/day (PH2); Cymarin 0.6–0.9 mg ivn man/day, 2.3–2.5 mg orl human (HDN); ouabain 0.25–0.65 mg ivn human/day, 12–48 mg/day orl human (HDN); toxic dose 143 mg/man; k-strophanthoside 0.2–1.2 mg ivn human/day, to 7.5 mg/day orl human; toxic dose 143 mg/man (HDN).
strophanthus hispidus
cardenolides, cymarin, ouabain, k-strophanthoside, g-strophanthidin
Not covered (AHP). Side effects may include cardiac arrhythmia, headache, ophthalmia (disturbance of color vision), queasiness, stupor, and vomiting. May enhance effects and side effects with calcium salts, glucocorticoids, laxatives, quinidine, and saluretics (PH2). Powdered seeds LDlo 25 mg/kg ivn dog (HH2); g-strophanthidin LDlo 0.33–0.44 mg/kg ivn dog (HH2). Aqueous leaf extract inhibit poisoning of snake (Echis carinatus), at doses as low as 0.2 mg/ml, increasing the clotting time (HDN).
Don’t take it except with physician guidance! (JAD). Cymarin 0.6–0.9 mg ivn man/day, 2.3–2.5 mg orl man (HDN); ouabain 0.25–0.65 mg ivn man/day, 12–48 mg/day orl man; toxic dose 143 mg/man (HDN); k-strophanthoside 0.2–1.2 mg ivn man/day, to 7.5 mg/day orl man; toxic dose 143 mg/man (HDN).
strophanthus kombe
Cymarin, ouabain, k-strophanthoside, g-strophanthidin
Don’t take except with physician guidance! (JAD) | Not covered (AHP).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Side effects may include cardiac arrhythmia, headache, ophthalmia (disturbance of color vision), queasiness, stupor, and vomiting. May enhance effects and side effects with calcium salts, glucocorticoids, laxatives, quinidine, and saluretics (PH2). Powdered seeds LDlo 25 mg/kg ivn dog (HH2); g-strophanthidin LDlo 0.33–0.44 mg/kg ivn dog (HH2).
Cymarin 0.6–0.9 mg ivn human/day, 2.3–2.5 mg orl human (HDN); ouabain 0.25–0.65 mg ivn human/day, 12–48 mg/day orl human (HDN); toxic dose 143 mg/human; k-strophanthoside 0.2–1.2 mg ivn human/day, to 7.5 mg/day orl human; toxic dose 143 mg/human (HDN). | Don’t take except with physician guidance! (JAD); Cymarin 0.6–0.9 mg ivn human/day, 2.3–2.5 mg orl human (HDN); ouabain 0.25–0.65 mg ivn human/day, 12–48 mg/day orl human (HDN); toxic dose 143 mg/human; k-strophanthoside 0.2–1.2 mg ivn human/day, to 7.5 mg/day orl human; toxic dose 143 mg/human (HDN).
strophanthus sarmentosus
Cymarin, Ouabain, K-Strophanthoside
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Side effects may include cardiac arrhythmia, headache, ophthalmia (disturbance of color vision), queasiness, stupor, and vomiting. May enhance effects and side effects with calcium salts, glucocorticoids, laxatives, quinidine, and saluretics (PH2).
Don’t take except with physician guidance! (JAD). Cymarin 0.6–0.9 mg ivn man/day, 2.3–2.5 mg orl man (HDN); Ouabain 0.25–0.65 mg ivn man/day, 12–48 mg/day orl man (HDN); K-Strophanthoside 0.2–1.2 mg ivn man/day, to 7.5 mg/day orl man; Toxic Dose 143 mg/man (HDN).
strychnos ignatii
Not covered (AHP). One bean can poison (1.5 mg strychnine = 30–50 mg seed) and generate anxiety, backache, enhanced reflexes, equilibrium disorders, heightened sense perception, pain, and stiff neck; then comes convulsions, dyspnea, and twitching. Lethal dose ca. 50 mg strychnine (1–2 g seed) (PH2).
1–2 grains for asthma (DEP); maximum single dose 100 mg seed; maximum daily dose 300 mg seed (HH2; MAD; PH2).
strychnos nux-vomica
strychnine
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Nux Vomica) — Not covered (AHP); Commission E reports the seed contains the toxic alkaloid strychnine (AEH). Poisoning can generate anxiety, backache, enhanced reflexes, equilibrium disorders, heightened sense perception, pain, and stiff neck, then convulsions, dyspnea, and twitching. Lethal dose ca. 50 mg strychnine (1–2 g seed) (PH2).
Dosages (Nux Vomica) — APA recommends only homeopathic dilutions (APA); 0.5–3 g powdered seed (KAP); 0.5–2 ml seed tincture (PNC); 0.5–1 g extract (KAP); 0.5–1 ml tincture (KAP); 5 ml nux vomica elixir (PNC); 0.05–0.2 ml nux vomica liquid extract (PNC).
strychnos nux-vomica l.
styphnolobium japonicum
8 g flower decoction/day (HHB); 1–3 g powdered flower (HHB).
styrax benzoin
Class 1 (AHP). Not Covered (PHR).
For topical Friar's or Turlington's Balsam (each 100 ml contains an alcohol extract from 10 g benzoin, 8 g storax, 4 g balsam of Tolu and 2 g aloe); for cold sores, cracked skin, and indolent ulcers (BIB).
styrax paralleloneurum
Class 1 (AHP). None noted at normal dosage (not given) (PH2).
styrax tonkinensis
“Daily dosage 0.5 gm, single dose 0.05 gm” (PH2, translation of HHB; HH2)
succisa pratensis
Not covered (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
Food farmacy; tea substitute (HHB); young leaves eaten as depurative (MAD); 1 tsp tincture several ×/day (MAD).
swertia chirayita
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Not for patients with duodenal or gastric ulcers (PH2).
300–2000 mg (HHB); 600–2000 mg (HH3); 14–28 ml tea (with cinnamon and clove) (KAP); 0.5–2 g root in decoction with honey for hiccup or nausea (KAP);10–20 drops 3 ×/day, between meals (PH2).
swertia japonica
Not covered (AHP).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
30–50 mg powdered shoot (HHB; HH3; PH2).
symphytum officinale
pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), rosmarinic acid, Allantoin, platyphylline, sarracine
Class 2a, 2b, 2c, 2d. Long-term use discouraged (AHP). Commission E reports the herb, leaf, and root permitted for external use only. Skin should be intact and pregnant users should first consult physician. External dosage of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) maximum 100 g/day for a maximum 4–6 weeks/year (AEH). Comfrey root may cause liver damage if taken internally (WAM). Contains PAs. Internal use may cause severe hepatic damage. PAs are toxic to humans, with liver damage with cirrhosis and ascites, or seneciosis, or veno-occlusive disease (VOD) reported in almost all cases of severe or fatal intoxications, from intakes of 0.5 mg/kg to 3.3 mg/kg (AEH1). Chronic comfrey use implicated in at least one instance of hepatic VOD (PNC). Effective July 1996, the AHP Board of Trustees recommends that all products with botanical ingredient(s) that contain toxic PAs, including Borago officinalis, display the following cautionary statement on the label, “For external use only. Do not apply to broken or abraded skin. Do not use when nursing” (AHP). CAN cautions the PAs are genotoxic, carcinogenic, and hepatotoxic. Because of the PAs, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Animal studies document placental transfer and secretion into breast milk of unsaturated PAs (CAN). May speed up metabolism of other drugs (stimulates metabolism of aminopyrine-N-demethylase, a drug metabolizing enzyme) (CAN). Internal use for more than 4–6 weeks is discouraged (SHT). Canadians do not allow in food (Blackburn, 1993). “No human being or animal should eat, drink, or take comfrey in any form” (Br. Med. J. 6163: 596; 1979). According to studies reported in the Lawrence Review of Natural Products, rats fed comfrey roots or leaves for 600 days developed hepatocellular adenomas, with signs of liver toxicity developing within 180 days. Urinary bladder tumors developed also, even in those on the lowest levels of comfrey. The incidence of liver tumors was higher with dietary roots than with dietary comfrey leaves. Alkaloids of Russian comfrey caused chronic liver damage and pancreatic islet cell tumors after 2 years administration in animal models (LRNP, October 1990).
Do not use (APA); do not use root (JAD); 2–4 g root as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 2 tsp (= ~7.4 g) root in hot tea (MAD); 2–4 ml liquid root extract (PNC); 2–4 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–8 ml liquid leaf extract (1:1 in 25% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–8 g leaf in tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.25–0.5 cup fresh leaf (PED); 6–12 g dry leaf (PED); 9 g dry leaf:45 ml alcohol/45 ml water (PED); 1–3 cups tea/day (5–10 g herb) remembering PAs (PH2).
symphytum spp.
symplocarpus foetidus
0.5–1.0 g powdered root, in honey or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 10–20 grains powdered root (GMH); 0.5–1.0 ml liquid root extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml root tincture (1:10 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
syzygium aromaticum
eugenol, volatile oil, oleanolic acid
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). CAN reports the eugenol in the volatile oil to be an irritant. The oil is a dermal and mucous irritant, sometimes causing cheilitis, dermatosis, and stomatosis. NO undiluted oil on infants’ gums or throat (Dilution: 2–4 drops oil to 1 tsp almond, safflower, or canola oil) (WAM). May interfere with anticoagulant therapy. “There are no known problems with the use of clove during pregnancy and lactation, provided that doses do not greatly exceed the amounts used in foods” (CAN). Clove bud oil is reported to have an oral LD50 of 2650 mg/kg body weight in rats (equaling that of the major ingredient, eugenol, which sensitizes some people, causing contact dermatosis) (DAD). EO LD50 = 2650 mg/kg orl rat (CRC). Major source of the COX-2 inhibitor, oleanolic acid, with clove up to 2% (COX). As the best source of eugenol, clove (up to 20% eugenol) may share many of its reported biological activities.
120–320 mg clove (CAN); 100–300 mg powdered clove (PNC); 0.05–0.2 ml clove oil (CAN; PNC); Mouthwashes with 1–5% EO (KOM; PH2); 2–4 ml concentrated clove infusion (PNC).
syzygium cumini
Class 1 (AHP). None reported (PIP). Physician should be consulted if diarrhea lasts more than 3–4 days (PIP). Not recommended in diabetes mellitus (PHR). LD50 95% ethanolic seed extract 4000 mg/kg orl mouse, 400 mg/kg par mouse (HH2).
1 g bark (MAD); 3–6 g bark/day (PIP); 0.3 g fruits, several ×/day (MAD); 30 seeds (1.9 g) (PHR; PH2); 0.3–2 g powdered seed (PNC).
tabebuia spp.
lapachol, beta-lapachone, Napthaquinones
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Pau d’Arco) — Class 1 (AHP). Side effects may include GI distress and nausea. “Whole bark has no known serious side effects” (SKY). Pregnant and lactating women should avoid (SKY). Guiraud et al. (1994) note that lapachol and beta-lapachone, though active against Candida, could be harmful. Multiple doses of oral lapachol at 500 mg/kg caused death with severe histopathological changes. In clinical trials, oral lapachol induced anticoagulant effects, nausea, and vomiting. After 6 doses at 9 mg/kg, beta-lapachone caused death, following anorexia, diarrhea, and weight loss (LRNP, July 1990). Napthaquinones (lapachol and beta-lapachone) have antifungal properties comparable to ketoconazole (SKY). Beta-lapachone is a better antifungal than ketoconazole (MAB). Since anticancer levels of naphthoquinones are toxic, pau d’arco cannot currently be recommended as a treatment for cancer (SKY). In large doses, lapachol and other
15–20 g bark/pint water/day (APA); 1.5–3.5 g dry bark/day (MAB); 15–20 g inner bark/pint/day; 0.25–0.5 cup fresh inner bark (PED); 6–12 g dry inner bark (PED); 9 g dry inner bark:45 ml alcohol/45 ml water (PED); 300 mg bark capsules 3 ×/day (SKY); 3 (505 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (NH); 3–7 ml extract in 45% ethanol (1:2)/day (MAB).
tabernanthe iboga
total alkaloids, ibogaine, tabernanthine, ibogamine, iboluteine
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Toxic doses may produce convulsions, paralysis, and death from respiratory arrest while the heart keeps beating.
tagetes erecta
tagetes lucida
LD50 = >50,000 mg/kg (TRA).
Don’t take it for more than 3 days (TRA).
tagetes lucida cav.
tagetes minuta
Synergistic with pyrethrum as insecticide (WOI).
tamarindus indica
Class 1 (AHP; JAD, 1997). None reported (PHR). Generally regarded as safe (APA). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Reportedly kills Aspergillus niger, Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, Schistosoma mansoni, and Staphylococcus mansonii (APA).
1–3 g fruit pulp (KAP); 4–8 g fruit pulp/day (APA; PNC); 4–30 g fruit pulp (HHB); 10–50 g tamarind paste (HH2; PHR; PH2); 1–2 g powdered seed (KAP).
tamus communis
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Oxalate needles on contact may trigger histaminic reactions; internally may irritate mouth, throat, stomach, and intestines (PH2). “Death in most painful form is the result of an overdose” (GMH).
Don’t take internally (JAD). Fruits steeped in gin for chilblain (GMH).
tanacetum cinerariifolium
pyrethrin, Pyrethrin
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (not given) (PH2). “Urticaria, asthma, and rhinosis have been reportedly induced by pyrethrin and by working with pyrethrin preparations. In humans, overdoses cause headache, tinnitus, facial pallor, epigastralgia, nausea, syncope, and asphyxia. Overdoses of the powder will cause unconsciousness, albuminuria, pallor, collapse, slow and heavy heartbeat, respiratory difficulties, and nausea” (CRC).
“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (not given) (PH2).
tanacetum parthenium
parthenolide, Sesquiterpene lactones (SLs), SLs with an alpha-methylene butyrolactone unit, COX-2 inhibitors
Class 2b (AHP). Oral feverfew may cause mouth ulcers in ca. 10% of patients. Should not be taken by pregnant women because the leaves have emmenagogue activity (LRNP, June 1990). No serious side effects have been noticed in those taking feverfew over years as a preventive. Side effects: ulcerations of the mouth, sore tongue, inflammation of the oral mucosa and tongue, swelling of the lips, unpleasant taste, loss of taste, urinary problems, headache, diarrhea, dry mouth, dusgeusia, gas, glossosis, hypersensitivity, nausea, stomatosis, and vomiting (most were apparent only in the first week) reported by those using feverfew. Cases of allergic contact dermatosis in humans have also been reported (AEH). Cases of contact dermatosis are rare. Mild tranquilizing and sedative effects have been reported. Chewing the leaves for extended periods may lead to abdominal pains and dyspepsia. Sesquiterpene lactones (SLs) are aromatic compounds widely distributed in certain plant families, with highest concentrations generally found in leaves and flowers. Sheep and cattle poisonings due to SL- containing species have been reported. SLs are allergenic and may cause dermatosis (CAN). Because it is reputed to be abortifacient and to affect the menstrual cycle, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. “Self-medication with feverfew should not be undertaken without first consulting a doctor” (CAN). “Should not be used by children under the age of two years” (SKY). Do not use with calcium channel blockers, ticlopadine, or coumadin (O’Brien, 1998).
600 µg parthenolide 1–3 ×/day (AKT); 250 µg parthenolide (APA); 2–3 leaves chewed daily with or without food (APA; CAN); 50 mg freeze-dried leaf daily with or without food (CAN); 0.25–0.5 tsp fresh leaf (PED); 0.2–0.4 g dry leaf (PED); 0.3 g dry leaf:2 ml alcohol/1 ml water (PED); 4–8 ml liquid leaf extract (APA; PNC); 50–200 mg dried shoots daily (CAN); 2 (380 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (NH). DANGEROUS ERROR ->250 mg parthenolide/day [should have said 250 µg] (SKY).
tanacetum vulgare
Camphor, sabinene, thujone, umbellulone
Class 2b, 3. Commission E reports flower and herb are not permitted for therapeutic use. Contains EO with neurotoxic thujone in such amounts that normal doses may already be toxic (AEH). CAN cautions that thujone in the volatile oil can cause severe gastrosis and convulsions. Documented fatalities have been mainly associated with ingestion of the oil (LD50 = 1150 mg/kg orl), but fatalities are reported with infusions and powders. Oil should not be used internally or externally (10 drops of oil is potentially fatal (CRC)), even the tea has been fatal (thujone may likely be responsible). Because of abortifacient and uterine activity caused by the thujone in the oil, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Contact dermatosis has been documented. May interfere with hypoglycemic and liver therapy. Therapeutic window only 2:5 (cf digitalis 1:2) (CAN). “The potential toxicity of this plant outweighs its benefits.” The lethal dosage is approximately 15–30 g oil (HH3; PH2).
Should not be used (APA); 2–4 g powdered seed (MAD); 1–2.5 g flower several ×/day (MAD); 2 tsp (~4 g) flower in hot tea (MAD); 1–2 g dry herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–8 ml liquid herb extract (PNC).
taraxacum officinale
sesquiterpene lactones, Flavonoids, Inulin, mucilage, amaroids
Class 2d (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Commission E reports contraindications: biliary obstruction, empyema of gallbladder, ileus; adverse effects: gastric complaints and ulcers (AEH; CAN; SKY). Other contraindications reported: biliary inflammation (AEH). CAN cautions that the sesquiterpene lactones are allergenic and may cause dermatosis. May interfere with diuretic and hypoglycemic therapies (CAN). Herbs with diuretic properties, such as juniper and dandelion, can cause elevations in blood levels of lithium (D’epiro, 1997). Not for use with acute gallbladder problems (WAM). Use in cholelithiasis only under a doctor’s supervision (PIP). Blumenthal et al. (1998) caution that, “As with all drugs containing bitter substances, discomfort due to gastric hyperacidity may occur” (KOM).
1–2 (for tea) to 3–4 (for decoction) tsp cut herb/150 ml water (PH2); 0.5 oz dry leaf/cup water (APA); 4–10 g dry leaf as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 4–10 ml liquid leaf extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–5 ml leaf tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 1–2 tsp root/cup a.m. & p.m.; 0.5–1 g powdered root (KAP); 3–4 g powdered root (PIP); 1–3 tsp powdered root/cup water (APA); 0.25–0.5 cup fresh root (PED); 6–12 g dry root (PED); 9 g dry root:45 ml alcohol/45 mg water (PED); 3–5 g dry root 3 ×/day (APA); 2–8 g dry root as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 28–56 ml root decoction (KAP); 5–10 ml root tincture (1:5 in 45% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 10–15 drops root tincture (PIP); 1–2 tsp tincture to 3 ×/day (APA); 1 tbsp dandelion juice morning and evening (APA); 4–10 ml dandelion juice (CAN; PNC; SKY); 2–8 ml liquid extract (PNC); 3–4 g/day (SHT); 3 (510 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (NH).
taxus baccata
taxus brevifolia
taxol (Paclitaxel)
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Very poisonous plant, causing colic, dry mouth, dyspnea, hypotension, mydriasis, paleness, queasiness, rash, reddening or blueness of the lips, unconsciousness, vertigo, and vomiting. Death may result from asphyxiation and diastolic cardiac arrest. 50–100 g fresh needles can kill an adult (APA; PHR). Fatalities reported from drinking yew tea (APA).
Not appropriate for home use (APA).
taxus canadensis
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Though poisonous, the twigs, berries, and leaves have been used in brewing a beverage (Iroquois, Penobscot) (DEM). All plant parts (except perhaps the red aril) of this and other yews contain highly toxic components and are considered poisonous. Ingesting as few as 50 leaves (needles) has resulted in fatalities (FAD).
taxus sp.
taxol, Paclitaxel
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Very poisonous plant; causing colic, dry mouth, dyspnea, hypotension, mydriasis, paleness, queasiness, rash, reddening or blueness of the lips, unconsciousness, vertigo, and vomiting. Death may result from asphyxiation and diastolic cardiac arrest. 50–100 g fresh needles can kill an adult (APA; PHR). Fatalities have been reported from drinking yew tea (APA).
Not appropriate for home use (APA).
Unknown ID
1 cup fresh leaf/3 cups water, boil 5 minutes; 1 cup before each meal (AAB).
tephrosia purpurea
3–6 g powdered herb (KAP); 12–20 ml infusion (KAP).
tephrosia virginiana
terminalia arjuna
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). One case of acute myocardial infarction tentatively associated with use of arjuna (KEB).
1–3 g bark (KAP); 3.88 g powdered bark (PH2); 1 g dry bark/day or 2–6 ml extract (1:2) (KEB); 14–28 ml decoction (KAP).
terminalia arjuna (roxb. ex dc.) wight & arn.
terminalia bellirica (gaertn.) roxb.
terminalia catappa
2 tbsp decoction (few leaves in 200 cc water) every 2 hours for diarrhea (JFM).
terminalia chebula
terminalia sericea
tetraclinis articulata
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
tetradenia riparia
Leaf infusions may produce drowsiness and stop ague. Strong teas should not be taken for more than 4 days. Should not be administered to children. There are two cases of suspected human poisoning from intentional overdoses of hot water extracts. Severe toxic inflammatory reactions of mucous membranes, leading to necrosis and sloughing, and profuse salivation ensued. Anuria developed after 24 hours and was fatal in one case (ZUL).
Doses should not exceed 1 tbsp. per day (ZUL).
tetradenia riparia (hochst.) codd.
tetradium ruticarpum
teucrium canadense
Probably best avoided because of close relationship to T. chamaedrys. Some species of Teucrium can be fatally hepatotoxic, others hepatoprotective. We don’t yet know about this one.
2 g herb/cup water in tea (JAD).
teucrium chamaedrys
Class 3; allowable only in alcoholic beverages. Canadian regulations disallow germander as a nonmedicinal ingredient in oral-use products (AHP). T. chamaedrys is hepatotoxic in humans (T. stocksianum is hepatoprotective (AHP)). Fatalities reported with liver necrosis, jaundice, and elevated blood aminotransferase levels. Hepatosis has been associated with germander (T. chamaedrys) in the U.K. (CAN). One death has been recorded. Drug is highly toxic, “should not be used.” (PH2).
Don’t take it (JAD); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC).
teucrium chamaedrys l.
teucrium polium
Not covered (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
1.5 g herb/cup tea (HH2).
teucrium scordium
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Water Germander) — Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
4 tsp (~7.2 g) herb/cup (PH2); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC).
teucrium scorodonia
Class 4 (AHP). Not covered (KOM). None known when properly dosed (PH2).
2 tsp (~2.6 g) herb/cup (HH2; PH2; MAD); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); herb poulticed topically (PNC).
thalictrum foliolosum
berberine, magnoflorine
14–28 ml tea (KAP); 1–2 ml root tincture (KAP); 0.5–1 g powder root (KAP). After 6 months storage, berberine was reduced to 1/4 , and magnoflorine to traces (WOI).
theobroma cacao
phenylethylamine, serotonin, tryptamine, tyramine, caffeine, theophylline, hydrolase, lipase, proteinase, catechin-tannins
Not covered (AHP). Not approved (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages or with consuming normal amounts of chocolate products” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no dosage level and does not define normal usage! JAD). Commission E reports contraindications for seed and seed shell: hypersensitivity; adverse effects: allergic reactions with skin manifestations and migraine (AEH). Patients with irritable bowel syndrome should avoid cocoa-containing products (APA). Cocoa butter clogs pores, causing blackheads in animals (APA). Biogenic amines (phenylethylamine, serotonin, tryptamine, and tyramine) can trigger migraine attacks (free amines total 750–1440 ppm in fermented beans). Even caffeine can trigger headaches in naive subjects. Theophylline is present in traces only in unroasted beans, which disappear with roasting (HHB). Enzymes such as hydrolase, lipase, and proteinase are deactivated in roasting. If caffeine from coffee works for hyperkinesis (ADD), a big if, why not caffeine from chocolate, or tea, both of which may have even more health benefits via their catechin-tannins? Milk chocolate may have 2000 ppm caffeine, bitter chocolate 4000 ppm (PH2).
1–2 tsp cocoa/cup water and/or milk (APA).
thevetia peruviana
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). Many fatalities reported from self medication, 1–2 seeds may kill a child (CRC). One South African child died 6 hours after eating a kernel (WBB).
2 grains are said to be as effective as quinine (WBB).
thuja occidentalis
thujone
Class 2b. Abortifacient, emmenagogue/uterostimulant (AHP). Approved for food use in the U.S. only if it is thujone free (may contain 6500 ppm thujone (AHP). Not approved by Commission E (KOM; PHR). Cedar leaf oil is suspected to have emmenagogue and uterotonic activity, should be avoided in pregnancy. Following attempted abortion, patient may experience diarrhea, hemorrhage of the mucous membranes, queasiness, vomiting, even fatality (PHR).
1–2 g 3 ×/day (HH2); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PNC); taken only occasionally (AHP); for rheumatic pain, Native Americans mix dry powder of 4 parts polypody with 1 part ground cedar cones, with warm water, as a poultice, separated from the body with a cloth to prevent the attendant burning (CEB).
thymus serpyllum
None reported (PIP). Oil is toxic and very irritant to the skin (FAD).
4–6 g/day herb (KOM; PH2; PIP); 2 tsp (~3.8 g) herb in hot tea (MAD); 1.5–2 g drug/cup water (PHR); 1 g herb/liter filtered water, or 4 mg EO to bath (PH2); 5–15 g liquid extract (PH2).
thymus vulgaris
thymol
Class 1 (AHP). None known (KOM; WAM). CAN cautions that thymol in the volatile oil can irritate the GI tract and mucous membranes (CAN). Others caution that thyme is an emmenagogue and suggest that the EO be avoided in pregnancy. Toxic symptoms reported for thymol include cardiac arrest, cheilitis coma, convulsions, dizziness, gastralgia, glossosis, headache, hyperemia, inflammation, nausea, respiratory arrest, and vomiting. Thyme oil should not be taken straight, and not applied straight topically. There are no known problems with the use of thyme during pregnancy and lactation, provided the doses do not greatly exceed the amounts used in foods (AHP; CAN). Like any EO, that of thyme, like that of rosemary, can be toxic in large quantities, causing irritations to the
2–4 tbsp fresh leaf (PED); 3–6 g dry leaf (PED); 4.5 g dry leaf:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 1 tsp herb/cup water 1–3 ×/day (APA); 1–2 g herb/cup several ×/day (KOM; PIP); 3 tsp (~7.2 g) herb in hot tea (MAD); 1–4 g dry herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 g herb in tea 1-several ×/day (children 1 year old to adults) (WHO); 0.5–1 g herb in tea (children up to 1 year old) (WHO); 1 tsp herb syrup several ×/day (APA); 0.6–4.0 ml liquid herb extract (CAN; PNC); 2–6 ml fluid herb extract (1:2)/day (MAB); 1–2 g fluid herb extract (PIP); 4–8 ml thyme elixir (CAN; PNC); 2–6 ml thyme tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 5–15 ml herb tincture (1:5)/day (MAB); 0.05–0.3 ml herb EO (PNC).
tiarella cordifolia
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD).
1 oz herb/pint infusion; take 4 oz tea 2–3 ×/day (GMH).
Class 2b (No reason given) (AHP). Contraindicated in pregnancy (KEB).
1–3 g powdered root/day (APA); 2–9 g dry root/day or 4–18 ml fluid extract (1:2); higher doses for severe bleeding and trauma (KEB).
tilia spp.
Class 1 (AHP). None reported (KOM; PIP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Excessive use may result in cardiac toxicity (CAN). In view of the lack of toxicological data, excessive use, especially during lactation and pregnancy, should be avoided (CAN). Cardiac patients might avoid (CRC). Ethanolic bark extracts septistatic; Candida MIC 70 mg/ml, Escherichia MIC 150 mg/ml, Staphylococcus MIC 150 mg/ml.
1–2 tsp (2–4 g) flowers, or in tea, 1–2 ×/day (APA; CAN; KOM; PHR; PH2; WIC); 2–4 ml liquid flower extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) (APA; CAN); 2–4 ml liquid flower extract (PNC); 1–2 ml flower tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) (CAN).
tinospora cordifolia
Bitter principles
20–60 ml (1:20) infusion (HHB); 2–4 ml (1:5) tincture (HHB); 1–3 g powder (KAP); 1–2 g extract (KAP). Kapoor has very high dosage, methinks; 56–112 ml plant juice, with long pepper and honey, for cough, gonorrhea, and fever.
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Tomato) — Not covered (AHP; KOM). None reported at normal doses (PH2). Leaves are poisonous and green tomatoes may not be salubrious; toxicity not noted with less than 100 g. Symptoms include arrhythmia, bradycardia, colic, cramps, diarrhea, dizziness, dyspnea, headache, mucososis, vomiting, and in huge overdoses, respiratory collapse (PH2).
Let this be one of your five fruits or five veggies per day (JAD).
toxicodendron pubescens
I do not recommend using this herb. Most of the indications were originally homeopathic but have leaked out into the general folklore. But note the quote from the PDR on the dangers of the homeopathic preparations in overdose. Still, I have heard many unsolicited testimonials to the virtues of homeopathic “Rhus tox” to alleviate or diminish Rhus sensitivities. | Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Overdoses of homeopathic preparations lead to severe mucous membrane irritation” with colic, diarrhea, hematuria, nephrosis, queasiness, stupor, vertigo, and vomiting, according to the Herbal PDR (PH2).
Do not take it (JAD). Largest single dose 50 mg; largest daily dose 150 mg; standard single dose 30 mg (PHR).
toxicodendron succedaneum
0.5–1.5 g powdered gall (KAP).
trachyspermum ammi
tribulus terrestris
trichosanthes kirilowii
trifolium pratense l.
trigonella foenum-graecum
trilisa odoratissima
Coumarins
Coumarins may trigger hemorrhage and liver damage (CRC). New evidence cited in Marle et al. (1987) indicates that coumarin is not mutagenic, carcinogenic, or teratogenic in rodents. Coumarin failed to produce any sensitization reactions in 25 human volunteers. It therefore seems likely that coumarin has little toxic potential for humans with normal liver function.
Not covered (KOM; PHR).
trillium erectum
Class 2b (AHP). As an emmenagogue/uterotonic, should not be used by pregnant mothers (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). In high doses emetic, emmenagogue, even promoting labor (PHR).
2–4 g root (HHB; PH2); 0.5–1 g powdered root (PNC); 4–8 ml liquid extract (PNC).
triticum aestivum
Not covered (AHP). None at proper dosage (PH2). Bulking agents should not be taken by those with stenotic lesions of the GI tract. May lead to bowel obstruction if fluid intake is inadequate. Do not take bulking agents when laying down or at bedtime. Do not use with antiperistaltics (such as, for example, loperamide) (SHT).
15 g bran 2 ×/day (SHT); 15–40 g bran 1–2 ×/day (PH2).
tropaeolum majus
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Overdoses can irritate mucous membranes and skin.
30 g juice (MAD; PH2); 30 g leaf/liter water (PH2); 14.4 mg benzyl-isothiocyanate 3 ×/day (PH2).
tsuga canadensis
Tannins, vitamin C
Not covered (AHP; KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Tannins probably explain most of the folklore, but vitamin C explains the chronic reference to scurvy (JAD).
1–5 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC).
turbina corymbosa
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). Excessive indulgence causes loss of one’s faculties (JFM).
5, 13, 26, 33, or 50 seeds in infusion (JFM); 2 g seed in 190 cc water for cramp (JFM).
turnera diffusa willd. ex schult.
quinones, cyanogenic glycosides, Volatile oils
Class 1 (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) “No significant adverse effects. Persons claiming to experience damiana-induced hallucinations should be monitored closely” (LRNP, Feb 1989). CAN reports convulsions from high dose (one report only), quinones, and cyanogenic glycosides. Because of possibility of cyanogenic glycosides and risk of cyanide toxicity in high doses, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. May interfere with hypoglycemic therapy (CAN). Leaves laxative, may loosen stool in large doses. Volatile oils diuretic, expectorant, and laxative; irritate mucous membranes and increase the production of, while decreasing the thickness of, fluids produced by these membranes (PED). CNS-depressant; hypoglycemic (CAN); roots uteractive.
1–2 (400 mg) capsules (APA); 400–800 mg capsule 3 ×/day (SKY); 2–3 ml tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 1 dropperful tincture (APA); 2–4 g shoot as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml liquid shoot extract (CAN); 1 tsp fresh leaf (PED); 0.5 g dry leaf (PED); 1 g leaf/cup water/3 ×/day (SKY); 0.5 g dry leaf:3 g alcohol/2 ml water (PED); 2–4 ml liquid extract; damiana extract BPC 0.3–0.6 g (PNC).
tussilago farfara
tylophora indica
Not covered (AHP; KOM). Fresh leaves may cause nausea and vomiting (KEB). Alkaloids irritate the skin and are emetic
200–400 mg dry herb or 1–2 ml/day 1:5 tincture, for no more than 4 weeks; 2 (100 mg) capsules powdered leaf/day/6 day (SAB).
ulmus minor
ulmus minor mill.
ulmus rubra
umbellularia californica
uncaria gambir
Class 1 (AHP).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
0.3–1 g resin (HHB; HH3); 0.5–2 g drug (PH2); 2.5–5 ml catechu tincture (200 g pounded herb, 50 g cut cinnamon to 1 liter 45% ethanol) (PH2).
uncaria tomentosa
Oxyindole alkaloids, Isopteropodine, Isomitraphylline, Isorhynchophylline, Peropodine, Alkaloids, Glycosides, Sterols, Hirsutine, Tanniniferous extracts, Quinovic-acid-glycosides
Class 4 (AHP). Too new to have much toxicity data, I think it is as innocuous as coffee. But only time will tell. Foster cautions that, like other immunostimulants, including his favorite, echinacea, cat’s claw should be avoided in such immune disorders as HIV, multiple sclerosis, and tuberculosis. Not shown safe in children and lactating or pregnant women (SF). Yet APA reports the folklore of European reports suggesting that cat’s claw, taken with AZT, can be beneficial in patients with AIDS (APA). AHP cites Ken Jones, who contraindicates for patients receiving organ transplants or skin grafts, hemophiliacs prescribed fresh blood plasma; simultaneous administration of certain vaccines, hormone therapies, insulin, and thymus extracts (AHP). Not for children under 3 years (AHP). PH2 warns of precipitous drops in estradiol and progesterone serum levels following 8 weeks use. Extracts prevent estrogen from binding to estrogen receptors on breast cancer cells.
1 g root/cup tea 3 ×/day (SKY); 20 g root bark/liter water (HH3); 30 g powdered root/800 ml water simmered to 500 ml (PH2); 1–2 (500 mg) bark capsules 3 ×/day (APA); 1–2 (500 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (NH); 2 (505 mg) StX capsules/day (NH); 20–60 mg StX; 1 tbsp decoction (SF); 1–2 ml tincture 1–2 ×/day (SKY). Fernando Cabieses seems to believe the folk contraceptive dosage, boiling 11–13 pounds root until it is reduced to 1 cup (pretty tricky).
urginea maritima
Commission E reports contraindications: potassium deficiency, and therapy with digitalis glycosides; adverse effects: diarrhea, gastrosis, irregular pulse, nausea, and vomiting; and interactions with other drugs: potentiation of calcium, cardiac glycosides, extended glucocorticoid therapy, laxatives, quinidine, and saluretics (AEH; KOM). I thought that was a pretty big dose of Commission E, but here’s what Gruenwald has to say: Should not be used in 2nd or 3rd degree atrioventricular blocks, carotid sinus syndrome, hypercalcemia, hypokalemia, hypertropic cardiomyopathy, thoracic aortic aneurysm, ventricular tachycardia, and WPW Syndrome (PHR).
0.1–0.5 g StX sea onion powder (2; KOM).
urtica dioica
(9Z-11E)-13-Hydroxy,9,11-octadecadienoic-acid, 14 octacosanol, oleanolic acid, secoisolariciresinol, ursolic acid, 9-hydroxy,10,12- octadecadienoic-acid, GLA, polysaccharide, isolectin (UDA), stigmast-4-en-3-one, stigmasterol, campesterol, acetylcholine, choline, formic acid, histamine, leukotrienes, serotonin
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). None known for herb, rare GI upsets for roots (KOM). Herbage contraindicated in fluid retention due to reduced cardiac or renal activity, rarely causing allergic reactions (PHR). Adverse effects of root: mild GI complaints (occasionally) (AEH). The urtication can be painful and long-lasting, in some inducing a black-and-blue reaction. No fatalities are reported in the U.S. CAN cautions that amines are irritant. Because it is reputed to be abortifacient and to affect the menstrual cycle, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. May interfere with blood pressure, CNS, and diabetes medication (CAN). Being a nettle fan, I had never heard of it before and was reluctant to try it when my friend Vic said that the root tea almost did him in. It’s almost as though he read the book, “Consumption of nettle tea has caused gastric irritation, a burning sensation of the skin, oedema, and oliguria” (CAN). Not for use in severely allergic patients, especially those with tendency toward anaphylaxis (WAM). Schulz et al. (1998) report on >4000 patients taking 600–1200 mg extract/day for 6 months. Only 35 showed side effects, 0.65% GI complaints, 9 (0.19%) dermatosis, and 2 (>0.05%) reporting hyperhydrosis (SHT). No contraindications are stated (SHT). Varro Tyler cautions against self-medication with BPH. Whenever treating BPH, a practitioner should be involved. Base-line levels of PSA should be established before considering an herbal treatment (JAD). Even JAMA admits that there is no hard proof for any intervention in BPH. Since hospitals kill 200,000 Americans a year, and prostate cancer fewer than 50,000, I’ll opt for nettle tea and sitosterol-rich nuts as the drug of choice for prostate protection.
3–4 tsp (~4 g) shoot/cup water several ×/day (APA); 3–4 tsp (4–6 g) shoot or leaf in 150 ml boiling water cooled, 3–4 ×/day (APA; MAD); 9 g leaf/day for arthrosis (MAB); 3–6 g dry leaf (PED); 4.5 g dry leaf:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 4–6 g root/day (APA; KOM); 4–6 g powdered root/cup water (WIC); 4–6 g dry root/day (MAB); 3–6 g root/day or 600–1200 mg/day 5:1 extract for BPH (MAB); 4–9 ml fluid root extract (1:2)/day (MAB); 2–6 ml root tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 3–4 tsp (~4.8 g) herb in hot tea (MAD); 2–4 g dry herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 8–12 g dry herb/day (MAB; SHT); 3–4 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2.5–5 ml liquid herb extract (PNC); 3–6 ml fluid herb extract (1:2)/day (MAB); 7–14 ml herb tincture (1:2)/day (MAB); 125 g juice (MAD); 1–2 (475 mg) capsules 2–3 ×/day; 1 (450 mg) StX capsule 2 ×/day (NH).
usnea spp.
None known (KOM; WAM). How’s this for a template, “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). “Following overdosage, signs of poisoning could appear. These signs have yet to be described” (PHR; PH2).
1 lozenge (equivalent to 100 mg herb) 3–6 ×/day (KOM; PHR); 60 mg drug/day (PH2).
utricularia vulgaris
Not covered (AHP). “Haz- ards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2).
Internally 2 g herb/100 ml water; externally 6 g (PH2).
total glycosides, uzarin, cardioactive glycosides, cardiac glycosides
Not covered (AHP). Commission E reports for the root, no known side effects or interactions with other drugs; contraindicated with cardioactive glycosides. Consult a physician when diarrhea lasts for more than 3–4 days. Also reported to contain cardiac glycosides; has digitalis-like cardiac activity in higher doses (AEH). There have been fatalities following parenteral application of Uzara drugs (PHR).
1 g drug (or equivalent of 75 mg total glycosides (KOM; PIP); 45–90 mg total glycosides (PH2); 45–90 mg uzarin/day (KOM; PIP).
vaccinium angustifolia, vaccinium corymbosum
anthocyanins, polyphenols
Class 1 (AHP). None reported for the berry.
3 tbsp dried fruit chewed (APA); 1–2 tsp chopped leaf/cup water, up to 6 ×/day (APA).
vaccinium macrocarpum
Strangely (AHP) omitted this from their Botanical Safety Handbook, but I suppose they would call it Class 1. The Commission E and herbal PDR apparently also ignored this excellent food farmaceutical too (KOM; PHR). Ingestion of ridiculous amounts (3–4 liters a day) may cause diarrhea and other GI disorders (LRNP,
3 fluid oz (90 ml) fruit juice/day (APA preventative); 12–32 fluid oz fruit juice/day (APA curative); 1 oz cranberry juice cocktail = 2 capsules (APA); 5–20 oz/day; 800 mg capsules; 2–4 (505 mg) capsules 3 ×/day; 2–3 (505 mg) capsules StX with meals (APA); 1/2 cup fresh fruit (PED); 1 tbsp dry fruit (PED); 15 g dry fruit:20 ml alcohol/130 ml water (PED).
vaccinium myrtillus
anthocyanosides, Anthocyanosides, Flavonoids, Anthocyanins, Polyphenols, Chromium
Fruits, Class 1; Leaf, Class 4 (AHP). Leaves can be poisonous consumed over a long period of time (TMA, 1996). Com-
1–2 tbsp crushed fruit/cup water; or 3 tbsp (ca 30 g) dried berries (APA); 20–60 g dry fruit (KOM); 12–24 g dry fruit (PED); 20–60 g dry fruit/day (SF); 1/2 –1 cup fresh fruit (PED); 100–300 g fresh berry (SHT); 1–1.5 tsp fruit (= ~7–10.5 g) cold infusion (MAD); 2–8 ml liquid fruit extract (PNC); 3–6 ml/day fluid extract (1:1) (MAB); 1 g leaf/cup tea (HH2); tablets with 50–120 mg (= 20–50 g fruit) (MAB); 2 (470 mg) capsules (StX to contain at least 10 mg anthocyanosides (25% anthocyanosides)) 2 ×/day (NH); 240–480 mg StX/day (25% anthocyanosides) (SF; SKY); 500 mg StX (25% anthocyanosides) (PED). Interpretations of Commission E approvals vary slightly: Blumenthal et al. (1998) approve 20–60 g fruit for nonspecific acute diarrhea and local therapy of mild inflammation of the mucous membranes of mouth and throat. Gruenwald et al. (1998) approve the fruits (not leaves) for diarrhea, pharyngosis, and stomatosis. Neither apparently approve for the indications for which I take bilberry, preventing further deterioration of the eyesight (e.g. maculitis, poor night vision, (nyctalopia)). Since bilberry is a healthy food pharmaceutical I’ll take the good old bilberry in spite of its disapproval by these scholastic tomes. It’s even richer in eye-preserving anthocyanosides than our native blueberries.
vaccinium uliginosum
Anthocyanins, polyphenols
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Overeating possibly fungal contaminated fruits may cause debility, dizziness, intoxication, queasiness, and vomiting (PH2).
2 heaping tsp fruit/250 ml cold water (HH2; PH2).
vaccinium vitis-idaea
Contraindicated in pregnancy, nursing, and in children under 12 years of age. Since the urinary antisepsis depends on an alkaline environment, acidifying herbs should be avoided (PH2). At 5 g/kg orl cat, the leaves cause the same intoxication as a toxic dose of hydroquinone (HH2). Liver damage could occur with long-term use or overdose, due to possible hepatotoxicity of the hydroquinones released. Hydroquinone intoxication, apparently roughly dose dependent, may occur with many Ericaceae, proportionate to their hydroquinone content. Without comparative analysis, we may even add the warning to other blueberries, cranberries, and bearberries.
2 g/cup tea (PH2).
valeriana officinalis
Valerenic acid, Valepotriate fractions, valepotriates
Class 1 (AHP). None reported (PIP). None known (KOM). But Gruenwald (PHR) mentions rare GI complaints, and even rarer contact allergies. He adds that long-term administration may occasionally cause cardiac disorders, headache, mydriasis, restless states, and sleeplessness, the latter two the main indications, now side effects of prolonged use. Full-body valerian baths should be monitored in cases of dermatosis, major skin injuries, cardiac insufficiency, or hypertonia (PHR). No contraindications, adverse effects, or interactions except for the effect of the tincture on driving ability (AEH). Ironically, “There is some concern about continual use, which may cause minor side effects, including headaches, excitability, and insomnia” (Morazzoni & Bombardelli, 1995). AHP minimizes published concern about toxicity of valepotriates, due to poor absorption and quick degradation into less toxic metabolites. If we accept this, we have to minimize medicinal potential of the valepotriates as well. CAN says, “There have been no reported side effects to valerian. The oil is unlikely to present any hazard in aromatherapy” (CAN). After all those kind words CAN says, “The safety of valerian during pregnancy and lactation has not been established and should, therefore, be avoided.” CNS depressant activity may potentiate pharmaceutical sedatives (CAN). For some 5% of people (maybe even hyperactives? JAD), valerian may be slightly stimulating (WAM).
1 tsp (2–3 g) root/cup water (APA); 2–3 g root 1–3 ×/day (APA); 2–3 g root/cup tea, 1 to several ×/day (KOM); 2–3 g root/150 ml water 1 ×/day (PIP); 0.3–1 g dry root, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 3–9 g dried root/day (MAB); 0.5–4 g powdered root (MAD); 2–4 ml concentrated root infusion (PNC); 0.3–1 ml liquid root extract (CAN; PNC); 3–5 ml (0.5–1 tsp) root extract or tincture (APA); 2–6 ml fluid root extract (1:2)/day (MAB); 5–15 ml root tincture (1:5)/day (MAB); 4–8 ml root tincture (PNC; SKY); 4–8 ml simple valerian root tincture, or 2–4 ml concentrated valerian root infusion (CAN); 0.5–1 tsp (1–3 ml) root tincture, 1 to several ×/day (KOM); 100 g for one full bath (KOM); 300–500 mg StX at bedtime (SKY); 300–400 mg StX (0.5% EO) day; 3 (475 mg) root capsules 3 ×/day or before bed (APA); 3–6 (475 mg) capsules one-half hour before bed (JAD).
valeriana officinalis l.
valeriana wallichii
Class 1 (AHP). Said to be a good substitute for V. officinalis (KAB).
1–3 g (KAP); 150–200 mg mixed valepotriates (HH3).
vanilla planifolia
Class 1 (AHP). Not treated (KOM; PHR). The folk emmenagogue activity will no doubt trigger nitpickologists to warn pregnant women against using this spice. And the plant does contain allergenic compounds, as do most plants.
Few located. Cover 4–6 pods with alcohol and steep 21 days, take 24 drops/day with sweetened water as stimulant (JFM); steep 8 g 8 days in alcohol, take 5–20 drops/day as aphrodisiac (JFM). Mom used to give me a half teaspoon of vanilla extract for upset stomach when she was out of Castoria, which also smelled, to me, of vanilla. I thoroughly enjoyed both, perhaps contributing to my latent love for herbal tinctures (hence my book, Living Liqueurs) (JAD).
vanilla planifolia jacks.
veratrum album l.
Severely toxic, lethal dose 10–20 mg alkaloids = 1–2 g herb. Alkaloids are transdermally absorbed (PH2).
Do not take it (JAD); initial internal dose 20–100 mg powdered herb, or 20–60 drops tincture (HH3; PH2); externally, 5 g drug in 10 g lanolin and 20 g fat as topical (HH3; PH2); 5 drops herb tincture 3 ×/day (MAD).
veratrum viride
verbascum densiflorum, verbascum thapsus
verbascum spp.
Mucilage, Saponins
Class 1 (AHP). None known or reported (KOM; PHR; PH2; PIP; WAM).
3–4 tsp (1.5–2 g) flowers/cup water 1–2 ×/day (APA); 3–4 g flowers/day (KOM; PIP); 1 tsp (~1.1 g) flowers/cold tea (MAD); 1–2 tbsp fresh leaf (PED); 2–3 g dry leaf (PED); 2 g dry leaf/cup boiling water (PED); 1–2 tsp leaf or flower 3–4 ×/day (SKY); 1–2 g leaf or flower 3 ×/day (SKY); 1–4 ml leaf or flower tincture 3–4 ×/day (SKY); 3–4 g drug/day (PH2); 20–30 drops tincture (20 g drug:80 g 70% ethanol) several ×/day (PH2); 2–5 ml liquid herb extract (PNC).
verbena officinalis
verbena officinalis l.
veronica beccabunga l.
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). LD50 (unspecific extract) 681 mg/kg ipr mouse (HH2); 1000 mg/kg ipr rat (HH2).
Food farmacy; shoots eaten like cress (JAD). Decoction may be eaten freely (FEL).
veronica officinalis
Class 1. Regulated in the U.S. as an allowable flavoring agent in alcoholic beverages only (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Speedwell prevented and speeded healing of ulcers in experimental animals (PHR).
1.5 g herb/cup 2–3 ×/day (HH2; PHR).
veronicastrum virginicum
Class 1 for the dry root; Class 2b for fresh root, violently cathartic (AHP).“Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates only homeopathic dosage! JAD). Traditionally, dried root is used, not fresh root. Potentially toxic (JAD). Overdoses may cause catharsis and emesis (PH2).
Homeopathic (D3 or higher) (HHB); Homeopathic (PH2); 0.2–0.3 g extract (MAD).
rosmarinic acid, verbenalin, aucubin
Class 2b (AHP), without stating the reason, perhaps rosmarinic acid refers to gonadotropic and lactagogue activity. CAN notes no toxicity or side effects for vervain itself, but adds that high doses of verbenalin can cause CNS paralysis, convulsions, and stupor. Excessive doses may interfere with blood pressure and hormone therapy. Reportedly abortifacient and oxytocic, it should not be taken in pregnancy. Excessive use should be avoided (CAN).
1.5–4 g to 3 ×/day (HH2); 4.5–9 g, as often happens, is the Chinese dose (PH2); 1 tsp herb/cup water 1–4 ×/day (APA); 2–4 g dry herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); infusion of 5–20 g herb/liter water, take 2–4 g up to 3 ×/day (PH2); 1–2 tsp liquid herb extract (MAD); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (APA; PH2; PNC); 2–4 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 5–10 ml herb tincture (1:1 in 40% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
vetiveria zizanioides
Class 2b. Abortifacient, emmenagogue, and uterotonic (AHP).
vetiveria zizanioides (l.) nash
viburnum prunifolium
Oxalates, Salicin, Scopoletin
Class 2d. Patients with kidney stone should use only with caution because of oxalates (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). HH3 notes a CNS-Depressant result of overdose. In animals it takes some 5–7 g scu to cause cardiac arrest (HH3). Salicin has many of the same activities as salicylates. According to WOI, salicin may impart the marked sedative action to the bark, reportedly polymerizing to form an alcohol soluble sedative that is even more relaxant (WOI). Scopoletin, with uterosedative activity, probably works by blocking
2 tsp dry bark/cup water (APA); 2–5 g powdered bark (HH3); 1–2 g powdered bark (PNC); 2–8 ml bark elixir (PNC); 4–8 ml liquid bark extract (PNC); up to 2 tsp tincture 3 ×/day (APA).
vicia faba
L-dopa, daidzein, genistein, pyrimidine derivatives
Not covered by AHP or Commission E. Inhaling pollen or ingesting seeds may, occasionally, cause favism, an especially severe hemolytic anemia, an inherited enzymatic deficiency (glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase) among Mediterranean people (Greek, Italian, and Semitic people). Injected intravenously in rabbits, broadbean extracts have produced hemoglobinuria and death (BIB). Overdosage, especially in genetically susceptible individuals, can rapidly lead to diarrhea, queasiness, vertigo, and vomiting. In more severe cases: anuria, fever, hemoglobinuria, icterus, and/or oliguria. Following ingestion and digestion, pyrimidine derivatives in high doses can cause hemolysis (PHR). L-dopa may cause a rise in blood pressure (PHR). L-dopa is contraindicated if you have heart, liver, lung, kidney, or thyroid problems; glaucoma; or are taking vitamin B6, antidepressants (especially MAOIs), and antipsychotic drugs. L-dopa may activate malignant melanomas, which, however, can be checked by 100 mg/day coumarin, found in the tonka bean.
I once calculated that it would take a pound of faba beans, or a couple ounces of sprouts, to give a physiological dose of L-dopa. The sprouts are also better sources of daidzein and genistein. L-dopa LD50 = 609 ppm (orl rbt); LD50 = 3650 ppm (orl mouse); LD50 = 4000 ppm (orl rat) (FNF).
vinca major
vincamine, vincine, mixed alkaloids
2–4 g dry herb/cup tea to 3 ×/day (HH2).
vinca minor
vincetoxicum hirundinaria
vincetoxin
Not covered (AHP). The mix of glycosides, called vincetoxin, in high doses in animals causes apnea, cardiac paralysis, and vomiting.
viola odorata
Rutin, aesculetin, citroflavonoids, ascopic acid, vincamine
Class 1 (AHP). Regulated in the U.S. as an allowable flavor only in beverages (AHP). Large overdoses may impair circulation, causing dyspnea, gastrosis, and nervousness (CEB).
1 heaping tsp flower/cup tea 1–2 ×/day (HH2); 2 tsp flower in cold or hot tea (MAD); 1 g rhizome (HH2); 4–5 g root (MAD).
viola tricolor
virola calophylla
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). The intoxicating snuff has led occasionally to death of a shaman (CRC).
virola elongata
Not covered (AHP; KOM).
N/A
viscum album
viscotoxins, lectin fraction
Class 2d. Contraindicated in protein hypersensitivity and chronic progressive infections such as AIDS and tuberculosis. Do not exceed recommended dose (2.5 g infused in cold water 10–12 hours, up to 2 ×/day) (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). “The drug is non-toxic with peroral administration” (PH2), and perhaps orally inefficacious too (BRU). Fatalities questionably reported from children ingesting berries (CRC). Commission E reports herb permitted only for parenteral injection. Contraindications: hypersensitivity to proteins, chronic progressive infections (e.g., tuberculosis); adverse effects: allergic and other reactions. Also reported the viscotoxins are not absorbed orally and may have necrotizing effects in higher doses (AEH). CAN cautions that mixed herbal preparations, containing mistletoe, are poisonous and can cause hepatosis and hypotension. Because of toxic constituents and uterine stimulant activity, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. Mistletoe may interfere with anticoagulant/coagulant, antidepressant, and cardiac therapies (CAN). Side effects of injections include allergic reactions, angina, chills, circulatory problems, fever, and headache (AHP).
Don’t take it! (JAD); 1 tsp chopped leaf/cup water 1–2 ×/day (APA); 2–6 g dry leaf, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–3 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–6 g powdered shoot (PNC); 1–3 ml liquid shoot extract (PNC); 10.5 ml leaf tincture (PNC); 0.5 ml tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 40–120 ml 1:20 cold water infusion (CAN); 1 tsp (2.5 g) in cold infusion up to 4 ×/day (PH2); steep 40 g in a liter of wine for 3 days (PH2).
vitex agnus-castus
aucubin, agnoside, agnuside
Class 2b. CAN cautions that it may cause allergic reactions. May counteract the effectiveness of birth control pills (AHP). Contraindicated in pregnancy and nursing (PH2). Because of its hormonal action, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). It may interfere with endocrine therapies (hormone replacement, oral contraception, sex hormones). The use of agnus castus to treat symptoms of corpus luteum deficiency is only recommended in patients not on any other hormonal therapy.” Commission E reports no contraindications or interactions for the fruit. Adverse effects: skin reactions, GI distress (AEH; KOM; SKY). Schulz et al., 1998, are more positive, reporting no serious side effects. High-dose experiments evoked some dose-dependent side effects but so mild as to generate no fears (SHT). May interfere with metabolism of dopamine-receptor antagonists (APA). Vitex acting on the pituitary increasing luteinizing hormone, helping reduce prolactin and increase progesterone (SKY).
20 mg fruit/day (APA); 30–40 mg fruit/day (MAB; PH2); 0.5–1 g fruit 3 ×/day (CAN); 40 drops/day/3 months (CAN); hydroalcoholic extracts corresponding to 30–40 mg fruits (KOM); 1–4 ml/day liquid extract (1:2) (MAB); 1–5 ml/day tincture (1:5) (MAB); 40 drops StX tincture (SF); 175 mg/day tincture (1:5) (SHT); 2 (560 mg) capsules 2 ×/day (NH).
vitex negundo
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). With potential or adverse cardiac activity due to cardiac glycosides, plant should be used with caution in patients with heart problems (FAY).
3–9 fruit in decoction; 15–30 g as powder; 15–60 g fresh leaf; 3–9 g powdered dry leaf (FAY); 6–12 g root (FAY); 3–6 g branches in decoction (FAY); 9 g powdered seed 3 ×/day for 9 days for bronchitis (FAY).
vitis vinifera
resveratrol, anthocyanins
None yet known. Not in (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). | In general, agricultural selection breeds out some of the natural pesticides, such as resveratrol, which also have many interesting biological activities. The recent ACS book, Wine, Nutritional and Therapeutic Benefits, heaps praise on resveratrol, failing to tell us that there is 10–100 times more in the leaves, and I suspect seeds, than in the fruit pulp and wines. The seeds have only recently come to the market and clinical trials are few and far between. On the other hand, the fruits contain more than 30 types of anthocyanins. Small wonder that grapejuice has four times the ORAC score of any other fruit juice studied (JNU).
75–600 mg seed extract (or pycnogenol)/day for up to 3 weeks; maintenance dose 40–100 mg/day (APA, PH2).
warburgia salutaris
Extracts from inner bark may have dangerous toxic effects (ZUL).
wasabia japonica
Not covered (AHP; FAD; KOM; PH2). Overdoses may cause sweating, confusion, and collapse (TAD).
wasabia japonica (miq.) matsum.
Unknown ID
phenethylisothiocyanate (PEITC)
Class 2b, 2d (AHP).“Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). KOM and PH2 report contraindications: peptic ulcer, and nephrosis; not to be used by children younger than 4 years; adverse effects: GI complaints (rarely). Since it is viewed as an emmenagogue and uterocontractant, it is contraindicated in pregnancy. Irritation of gastric mucosa may develop following chronic ingestion of large quantities (AEH). I suspect that much of what is said here could be said about horseradish, wasabi, and even the milder crucifers, such as the wholesome broccoli, etc. (JAD). Plants become bitter in flowering, better for medicine, worse for food (JFM).
Food farmacy, eat some almost every day but don’t overdo it. 4–6 g dry herb/day (KOM); 2 g fresh herb/cup tea (APA); 20–30 g fresh herb/day (APA; KOM); 20–30 g fresh herb up to 3 ×/day (HH2); 60–150 g freshly pressed plant juice (APA; KOM); 4 tbsp fresh plant juice with cold Guazuma bark tea (like slippery elm bark) with 4 tbsp red wine 2–3 ×/day (JFM); 2–3 cups preprandial herb tea, 2 g (1–2 tsp) steeped 10–15 minutes in 150 ml boiled water (PH2).
cucurbitacins
Not covered (AHP). Not approved (KOM). Commission E reports the root is a drastic laxative and emetic, while other therapeutic uses are not adequately documented. Contains toxic cucurbitacins (AEH). May cause abortion, anuria, blisters, colic, collapse, convulsions, cramps, death, dermatosis, diarrhea, dizziness, emesis, hematochezia, nephrosis, neurosis, paralysis, rash, and/or vomiting (KOM; PH2).
Do not take (JAD); 0.5–1 g drug/cup water (PH2); 300–500 mg powdered herb as emetic and laxative (PH2).
phenolics, EOs
Not covered (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specific quantified dosage! JAD). Direct application of the mint is said to be an irritant (WBB). Fractions containing phenolics may exhibit CNS-stimulant and spasmogenic activities. But extracts or populations rich in EOs may be a CNS depressant and somnifacient (TIB). EOs are antibacterial and antifungal.
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PHR). This toxic plant should not be taken internally (TRA). Human fatalities have been attributed to ingestion of green berries.
Unknown ID
salicylates, tannins, methyl salicylate, salicin, saligenin, salicylic acid
Class 1. Salicylates and tannins (AHP). AHP gives wintergreen its top score for efficacy (APA). “Not allowed as a non-medicinal ingredient in oral products in Canada” (Michols, 1995). As little as 4 ml wintergreen oil can be lethal to an infant. In the U.S., liquid preparations containing more than 5 ml methyl salicylate must be in child-resistant packaging. Mothers are advised that salicylates do enter breast milk. Some people, especially asthmatics, may be supersensitive to salicylates. Caution is always indicated when ingesting any new substance, natural or synthetic (AEH). Wintergreen oil, classified as “very toxic,” contains methyl salicylate as the chief constituent. Poisoning from wintergreen oil can cause acid-base imbalance, altered glucose metabolism, and central nervous system toxicity. Between 5 ml and 30 ml of wintergreen oil is considered the lethal dose for a 70 kg human. CNS symptoms of mild chronic salicylate toxicity include headache, dizziness, tinnitus, difficulty in hearing, dimness of vision, mental confusion, lassitude, and drowsiness. More severe symptoms include seizures and coma. Fever is usually prominent. Severe acute salicylism includes disorientation, irritability, hallucinations, lethargy, stupor, coma, and seizures. GI irritation may produce nausea and vomiting, hyperventilation, increased GI losses leading to mild dehydration, which is enhanced by decreased intake of fluid. Hypokalemia may result from increased GI and renal losses and systemic alkalosis (AEH1). The prodrug, salicin, which does not irritate the stomach, is metabolized to saligenin in the GI tract and salicylic acid after absorption. “Products containing willow should preferably be standardized on their salicin content...” (CAN).
Never take wintergreen oil internally (APA); 1 tsp leaf/cup water, steeped 5–20 minutes, up to 1 cup/day, one mouthful at a time (APA); 10–20 drops wintergreen oil in capsules or milk (MAD).
Tannins, safrole
Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Witch Hazel) — Class 1. Tannins (AHP). None known (KOM). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). “It is not recommended that these extracts be taken internally because the toxicity of the tannins has not been well defined... Doses of 1 g of witch hazel will cause nausea, vomiting, or constipation” (LRNP, Sep, 1990). In susceptible patients, irritation of the stomach may occur occasionally. In rare cases, witch hazel tannins may cause liver damage (BIS). In view of the tannin content, excessive use, especially during lactation and pregnancy, should be avoided. “There are no known problems with the use of witch hazel during pregnancy...” (CAN). No contraindications, drug-drug interactions, or side effects are known (SHT). “May cause minor skin irritation in some people when applied topically” (SKY). Witch hazel water is not intended for internal use. Teas can be brewed from leaves and twigs, but their safety is not defined (LRNP, September 1990). APA lists the carcinogen safrole, but in minimal quantities (APA).
Dosages (Witch Hazel) — 2 g dry leaf, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2 g leaf or bark 3 ×/day (MAB); 7–14 ml/day fluid leaf extract (1:2) (MAB); 2–4 tsp (1–2 g) leaf decoction 1–3 ×/day (APA); 1 tsp (2–3 g) bark decoction 1–3 ×/day (APA); 2–4 ml liquid bark extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 10–15 drops liquid bark extract 3 ×/day (MAD); 2–4 ml bark tincture (APA; PNC).
withania somnifera
alkaloids, anolides, toxic medicinal compounds
Class 2b, 2d; may potentiate barbiturates (AHP). Berries may cause severe gastrointestinal pain, should not be eaten (TMA, 1996). While many herbalists praise this, even attributing ginseng like magic to it, I think of it as a poorly known nightshade relative with a few toxic medicinal compounds. Strange that it did not make it into the Herbal PDR or Commission E, negatively or positively (JAD; KOM).
150–300 mg StX (APA); 2–3 g powdered root, 3 ×/day (APA); capsule StX at 2–5 mg with anolides (APA); 3–6 g dry root/day (MAB); 6–12 ml/day fluid extract (1:2) (KEB); 1 (300 mg) tablet 2 ×/day (NH).
Class 2b (AHP). “Health hazards not known with proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Avoid in cold, diarrhea, and pregnancy (PH2).
9–15 g fruit/day in tea (FAY); sip tea through the day for pertussis (PH2).
xanthorhiza simplicissima
xylopia aethiopica
Not covered (AHP; KOM; PH2). Fruit extracts slightly active against Gram-positive Mycobacterium phlei and Sarcinia lutea, but inactive against fungi tested and Staphylococcus (UPW).
1–2 glasses/day root tincture in palm wine for asthma, rheumatism, and stomachache (UPW).
xysmalobium undulatum
total glycosides, uzarin, cardioactive glycosides, cardiac glycosides
Not covered (AHP). Commission E reports for the root, no known side effects or interactions with other drugs; contraindicated with cardioactive glycosides. Consult a physician when diarrhea lasts for more than 3–4 days. Also reported to contain cardiac glycosides; has digitalis-like cardiac activity in higher doses (AEH). There have been fatalities following parenteral application of Uzara drugs (PHR).
1 g drug (or equivalent of 75 mg total glycosides (KOM; PIP); 45–90 mg total glycosides (PH2); 45–90 mg uzarin/day (KOM; PIP).
xysmalobium undulatum (l.) r. brown
yucca filamentosa
Saponins, Root compounds
AHP classifies four other Yuccas as Class 1. “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Root compounds toxic to lower life forms (FAD). Saponins can cause gastric discomfort (PHR).
3 (490 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (APA).
yucca glauca
saponins, polysaccharides
Yucca saponins are regarded to be a safe supplement since they are not thought to be absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, thereby reducing the dangers of systemic hemolytic activity... No known problems with the use of yucca during pregnancy and lactation” (CAN).
yucca spp
saponins, steroids, Polysaccharide
Class 1 (for 4 spp. of Yucca) (AHP). Though large doses of saponins can be hemolytic and problematic, “little is known about the toxicity of yucca saponins” (LRNP, March 1994). Overdoses may cause loose stools (SKY). Yucca saponins are regarded to be a safe supplement since they are not thought to be absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, thereby reducing the dangers of systemic hemolytic activity. No known problems with the use of yucca during pregnancy and lactation (CAN).
0.25–0.5 cup fresh root (PED); 6–12 g dry root (PED); 9 g dry root:45 ml alcohol/45 ml water (PED); 0.25 oz root/pint water 3–5 ×/day (SKY); 3 (490 mg) capsules 3 ×/day (JAD).
zanthoxylum armatum
0.6–1.2 g powdered fruit (KAP); 1–3 g powdered bark (KAP); 28–56 ml bark tea (KAP).
zanthoxylum clava-herculis
Nitidine chloride, Nitidine, Chelerythrine, Asirinin, neoherculin
Class 2b (AHP). Reported to be toxic to animals (lethal to cattle, chicken, and fish). Because of pharmacologically active alkaloids and coumarins, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. May interfere with anticoagulant therapy. Excessive use should be avoided (CAN).
5 g bark/750 ml water up to 3 ×/day (APA); 1–3 g dry bark, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN; HH3); 1–3 ml liquid bark extract (PNC); 1–3 ml liquid bark extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–5 ml bark tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.5–1.5 g dry berries (CAN); 0.5–1.5 ml liquid berry extract (1:1 in 45% ethanol) (CAN); 0.5–1.5 ml liquid fruit extract (PNC).
zanthoxylum spp.
zea mays
allantoin
Class 1 (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). CAN reports dermatosis and allergenic reaction. Because of its uterine stimulant effect in vivo, its use in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided (CAN). Because of its diuretic activity, could lead to hypokalemia (CAN).
4–8 g silk as tea 3 ×/day (CAN); 1 tsp silk/cup water up to several ×/day (WIC); 2 tsp corn silk/cup tea every other day (PH2); 4–8 ml liquid extract; 5–15 ml tincture (1:5 in 25% alcohol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–3 tsp tincture/day (20 g corn silk/100 ml 20% ethanol to steep 5 days) (PH2); 8–15 ml syrup (CAN); 2–8 ml liquid corn silk extract (PNC).
curcumin, curcumol, curdione
Class 2b (AHP), cautions about excessive use during excessive menstruation. Unapproved by KOM. “Since the effectiveness for the claimed applications is not documented, a therapeutic use of this herb cannot be recommended” (KOM). I feel that it can serve in lieu of cardamom, ginger, and/or turmeric because it shares many of the same chemicals with them. In India, it is even recommended for infants and convalescents. Not for use during pregnancy (PH2).
1–3 g/day (HHB); 1–2 g powdered root (KAP); 14–28 ml root tea (KAP); 1–1.5 g root/cup water (PHR); 1:4 rhizome:liquid extract (PH2); 300 and 450 mg capsules (PH2).
zingiber officinale
3–10 g fresh ginger, or 2–4 g dry ginger, 1–3 ×/day (JAD; SKY); 0.3–1.5 g rhizome several ×/day (MAD); 500–1000 mg fresh root 3 ×/day (MAB); 2–4 tbsp fresh root (PED); 3–6 g dry root (PED); 4.5 g dry root:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 500 mg dry root 2–4 ×/day
ziziphus jujuba
Class 1, 2b. Emmenagogue and uterotonic (AHP). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2)
Food farmacy. 5–10 g fruit (APA); 6–15 g fruit (FAY); 2–8 g dry seed/day or 4–16 ml fluid extract (1:2) (KEB).
ziziphus mauritiana
5–7 fruit (KAP); 56–112 ml bark decoction (KAP).
ziziphus spina-christi
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